State of New York v. Next Millenium Realty ( 2013 )


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  • 12-2894-cv
    State of New York v. Next Millenium Realty
    UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS
    FOR THE SECOND CIRCUIT
    August Term 2012
    (Argued: May 13, 2013 Decided: October 15, 2013                      Corrected: October 16, 2013)
    Docket No. 12-2894-cv
    STATE OF NEW YORK, JOSEPH MARTENS, as Commissioner of the New York State
    Department of Environmental Conservation,
    Plaintiffs-Appellants,
    v.
    NEXT MILLENIUM REALTY, LLC, 101 FROST STREET ASSOCIATES, L.P.,
    Defendants-Consolidated Plaintiffs-
    Consolidated Defendants-
    Cross Defendants-Appellees,
    101 FROST STREET CORPORATION, PAMELA SPIEGEL SANDERS, as Executor of the
    Last Wills and Testaments of, and duly authorized Administrators of the Estate
    of, Emily Spiegel and Jerry Spiegel, LISE SPIEGEL WILKS, as Executor of the Last
    Wills and Testaments of, and duly authorized Administrators of the Estate of,
    Emily Spiegel and Jerry Spiegel, ISLAND TRANSPORTATION CORPORATION,
    Defendants-Consolidated Defendants-
    Appellees,
    UTILITY MANUFACTURING CO., INC., NEST EQUITIES, INC., AUDIE KRANZ, WILBUR
    KRANZ, KAMAL CHOPRA, TISHCON CORP., A/K/A TISHCON CORPORATION, JOE
    ELBAZ, GRAND MACHINERY, INC., WILLIAM GROSS,
    Defendants-Consolidated Defendants-
    Cross Defendants-Appellees,
    ARKWIN INDUSTRIES, INC., WILLIAM MAGLIO, as Executor of the Last Will and
    Testament of, and duly authorized Administrator of the Estate of, defendant
    Daniel Berlin, FRANK JACOBSON, as Executor of the Last Will and Testament of,
    and duly authorized Administrator of the Estate of, defendant Daniel Berlin,
    THOMAS MALLOY, EQUITY SHARE I ASSOCIATES,
    Defendants-Consolidated Defendants-
    Cross Defendants-Cross Claimants-
    Appellees,
    BAROUH EATON ALLEN CORP., 2632 REALTY DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION,
    RICHARD DEGENHART, ATLAS GRAPHICS, INC., H.D.P. PRINTING INDUSTRIES CORP.,
    IMC EASTERN CORPORATION, F/K/A IMC MAGNETICS CORP., NMB (USA) INC.,
    Defendants-Appellees,
    PAUL MERANDI,
    Defendant-Consolidated Defendant-
    Cross Defendant,
    C&O REALTY CO.,
    Defendant-Cross Defendant-Appellee,
    SULZER METCO (US) INC.,
    Third-Party Defendant-
    Cross-Defendant-Appellee,
    -2-
    ADCHEM CORP., LINCOLN PROCESSING CORP., NORTHERN STATE REALTY CO.,
    PUFAHL REALTY CORP.,
    Consolidated Defendants-Third-Party
    Defendants-Cross Defendants,
    JOSEPH PUFAHL, CHARLES PUFAHL, HERMAN PUFAHL, JOHN PUFAHL, MARVEX
    PROCESSING CORP., UNICORD, AUTOLINE AUTOMOTIVE CORP., COBRALINE
    MANUFACTURING, MARKI REALTY, PHYSIO-CHEM, INC., BRONCO MODEL CRAFT,
    INC., APPLIED MAGNETICS, HYMAN HASS,
    Consolidated-Defendants,
    KORG U.S.A. INC., US-1 MARKETING GROUP, INC., Individually and as Successor to
    Cobraline Manufacturing Corp., VISHAY GENERAL SEMICONDUCTOR, INC.,
    Individually and as Successor to General Semiconductor, Inc., and General
    Instruments Corporation, GENERAL SEMICONDUCTOR, INC., VISHAY MIC
    TECHNOLOGY, INC., Individually and as Successor to General Semiconductor, Inc.
    and General Instruments Corporation, GENERAL INSTRUMENTS CORPORATION,
    Third-Party Defendants-
    Cross Defendants,
    VERIZON NEW YORK, INC., Individually and as Successor to GTE Operations
    Support Incorporated, GTE CORPORATION, GTE SYLVANIA INCORPORATED,
    SYLVANIA ELECTRIC PRODUCTS INCORPORATED, VERIZON INC., VERIZON, VERIZON
    INC., Individually and as Successor to GTE Operations Support Incorporated,
    GTE CORPORATION, GTE SYLVANIA INCORPORATED, SYLVANIA ELECTRIC
    PRODUCTS INCORPORATED, VERIZON NEW YORK INC., VERIZON, VERIZON
    COMMUNICATIONS, Individually and as Successor to GTE Operations Support
    Incorporated, GTE CORPORATION, GTE SYLVANIA INCORPORATED, SYLVANIA
    ELECTRIC PRODUCTS INCORPORATED, VERIZON INC., VERIZON, GTE OPERATIONS
    SUPPORT INCORPORATED, Individually and as Successor to GTE Corporation, GTE
    SYLVANIA INCORPORATED, SYLVANIA ELECTRIC PRODUCTS INCORPORATED, VISHAY
    INTERTECHNOLOGY, INC., Individually and as Successor to Vishay General
    Semiconductor, Inc., GENERAL SEMICONDUCTOR, INC., and GENERAL INSTRUMENTS
    -3-
    CORPORATION, GTE CORPORATION, GTE SYLVANIA INCORPORATED, SYLVANIA
    ELECTRICAL PRODUCTS INCORPORATED,
    Third-Party Defendants,
    JERRY GOODMAN, EMILY SPIEGEL, as Trustee under an Agreement of Trust for the
    benefit of Pamela Spiegel and Lisa Spiegel,
    Defendants-Cross Defendants,
    SCIBELLI BROTHERS AUTO COLLISION, INC., JOSEPH SCIBELLI, SAM-TON TOWING &
    SALVAGE INC.,
    Defendants.
    Before:
    CHIN AND LOHIER, Circuit Judges,
    AND SWAIN, District Judge.*
    Appeal from a judgment of the United States District Court for the
    Eastern District of New York (Feuerstein, J.), dismissing claims by the State of
    New York under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation,
    and Liability Act of 1980, 
    42 U.S.C. § 9601
     et seq., for costs incurred in
    investigating and addressing groundwater contamination in Hempstead, New
    *
    The Honorable Laura Taylor Swain, of the United States District Court for the
    Southern District of New York, sitting by designation.
    -4-
    York. The district court granted summary judgment in favor of the defendants-
    appellees on the ground that the action was time-barred.
    VACATED and REMANDED.
    ____________________________
    BARBARA D. UNDERWOOD, Solicitor General
    (Cecelia C. Chang, Deputy Solicitor
    General, Matthew W. Grieco, Assistant
    Solicitor General, on the brief), for Eric T.
    Schneiderman, Attorney General of the
    State of New York, New York, New York,
    for Plaintiffs-Appellants.
    KATHLEEN M. SULLIVAN (William B. Adams, on
    the brief), Quinn Emanuel Urquhart &
    Sullivan, LLP, New York, New York, and
    Kevin Maldonado, Kevin Maldonado &
    Partners LLC, Windham, New York,
    for Defendants-Appellees Next Millennium
    Realty, LLC, 101 Frost Street Associates, L.P.,
    101 Frost Street Corporation, Pamela Spiegel
    Sanders, as Executor of the Last Wills and
    Testaments of, and duly authorized
    Administrators of the Estate of, Emily Spiegel
    and Jerry Spiegel, Lise Spiegel Wilks, as
    Executor of the Last Wills and Testaments of,
    and duly authorized Administrators of the
    Estate of Emily Spiegel and Jerry Spiegel,
    Emily Spiegel, as Trustee under an Agreement
    of Trust for the benefit of Pamela Spiegel and
    Lisa Spiegel.
    -5-
    Philip C. Landrigan and Peter D. Aufrichtig,
    McCarthy Fingar LLP, White Plains, New
    York, for Defendants-Appellees Kamal Chopra,
    Joe Elbaz and Tishcon Corp., a/k/a Tishcon
    Corporation.
    Paul B. Sweeney and Barry S. Cohen, Certilman
    Balin Adler & Hyman, LLP, East Meadow,
    New York, for Defendant-Appellee Equity
    Share I Associates.
    John Gregory Martin and Suzanne M. Avena,
    Garfunkel Wild, P.C., Great Neck, New
    York, for Defendants-Appellees Arkwin
    Industries, Inc., William Maglio, as Executor of
    the Last Will and Testament of, and duly
    authorized Administrator of the Estate of,
    defendant Daniel Berlin, Frank Jacobson, as
    Executor of the Last Will and Testament of, and
    duly authorized Administrator of the Estate of,
    defendant Daniel Berlin, Thomas Malloy.
    Charlotte A. Biblow and Franklin C. McRoberts,
    Farrell Fritz, P.C., Uniondale, New York, for
    Defendants-Appellees Grand Machinery, Inc.
    and 2632 Realty Development Corporation.
    Michael S. Cohen, Nixon Peabody LLP, Jericho,
    New York, for Defendants-Appellees William
    Gross and C&O Realty Co.
    Miriam Villani, Sahn Ward Coschignano & Baker,
    PLLC, Uniondale, New York, for
    Defendants-Appellees Audie Kranz, Wilbur
    Kranz, Nest Equities, Inc., and Utility
    Manufacturing Co., Inc.
    -6-
    Thomas R. Smith, Bond, Schoeneck & King,
    PLLC, Syracuse, New York, for Defendant-
    Appellee Barouh Eaton Allen Corp.
    Kenneth L. Robinson, Robinson & Associates,
    P.C., Syosset, New York, and Theodore
    Warren Firetog, Law Offices of Theodore
    W. Firetog, Farmingdale, New York, for
    Defendants-Appellees Richard Degenhart,
    Atlas Graphics, Inc., and H.D.P. Printing
    Industries Corp.
    Robert R. Lucic, John E. Peltonen, and Daniel K.
    Fink, Sheehan Phinney Bass & Green, P.A.,
    Manchester, New Hampshire, for
    Defendants-Appellees IMC Eastern
    Corporation, f/k/a IMC Magnetics Corp., and
    NMB (USA) Inc.
    Sheila A. Woolson, Epstein Becker & Green, P.C.,
    Newark, New Jersey, for Defendant-Appellee
    Island Transportation Corporation.
    Richard P. O’Leary, McCarter & English, LLP,
    New York, New York, for Defendant-
    Appellee Sulzer Metco (US) Inc.
    ____________________________
    CHIN, Circuit Judge:
    In this case, the State of New York (the "State") sued defendants-
    appellees under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation,
    and Liability Act of 1980, 
    42 U.S.C. § 9601
     et seq. ("CERCLA"), to recover certain
    -7-
    costs incurred in investigating and addressing groundwater contamination in the
    Town of Hempstead (the "Town") in Nassau County, caused by pollution
    emanating from the New Cassel Industrial Area (the "NCIA").
    The district court (Feuerstein, J.), adopting a report and
    recommendation of the magistrate judge (Orenstein, M.J.), granted defendants'
    motion for summary judgment and dismissed the action as time-barred. The
    district court held that the State’s claims were barred by the six-year statute of
    limitations governing suits to recover costs for remedial actions -- that is,
    measures to permanently remediate hazardous wastes -- set forth in 
    42 U.S.C. § 9613
    (g)(2)(B). That statute of limitations is triggered by the commencement of
    cleanup construction, and as the district court found that construction began
    more than six years before suit was brought, the district court held the action was
    time-barred.
    The State argues that the cleanup activities in question are removal
    actions -- that is, measures taken to address immediate threats to public health --
    and that suits to recover costs for removal actions are governed by the three-year
    statute of limitations set forth in 
    42 U.S.C. § 9613
    (g)(2)(A), which is triggered by
    the completion of the removal action. The State contends that because the
    -8-
    removal measures here had not been completed when this action was brought,
    the statute of limitations had not yet begun to run.
    We agree that the State's action is timely. We hold that the cleanup
    activities here were implemented as removal measures and continued to be
    removal measures at all relevant times. Accordingly, the district court erred in
    applying the statute of limitations for remedial rather than removal actions, and
    we vacate and remand for further proceedings consistent with this opinion.
    STATEMENT OF THE CASE
    A.     The Contamination and Investigation
    The NCIA, a 170-acre site in North Hempstead, New York, sits on
    top of a sole source aquifer1 in which groundwater flows approximately 55 to 65
    feet below the ground surface. In the early 1950's, the NCIA was home to a
    variety of light industries. A number of these industries were involved in
    1      A sole or principal source aquifer is an aquifer that supplies at least 50 percent of
    the drinking water consumed in the area overlying the aquifer. See Sole Source Aquifer
    Protection Program, Envtl. Protection Agency, http://water.epa.gov/infrastructure/
    drinkingwater/sourcewater/protection/solesourceaquifer.cfm (last visited Sept. 11,
    2013).
    -9-
    activities that produced volatile organic compounds ("VOCs"), which eventually
    found their way into the groundwater.2
    In 1986, the Nassau County Department of Health (the "County
    Health Department") uncovered groundwater contamination at the NCIA. As a
    consequence, in 1988 the New York State Department of Environmental
    Conservation (the "DEC") listed the NCIA as a Class 2 Site on the State registry of
    hazardous waste sites.3
    1.     The GAC
    In 1989, the Town detected VOCs in two of its water supply wells at
    levels approaching New York State Maximum Contaminant Levels for drinking
    water.4 These wells were located in the Bowling Green Estates Water District
    and were approximately 1,500 feet from the NCIA in the direction of the flow of
    2      The presence of elevated VOCs in drinking water is a health risk because some
    VOCs are carcinogens and others may harm certain human organs. See Barbara L.
    Rowe et al., Occurrence and Potential Human-Health Relevance of Volatile Organic
    Compounds in Drinking Water from Domestic Wells in the United States, 115 Envtl. Health
    Persp. 1539, 1539 (2007).
    3      Class 2 sites contain hazardous waste that poses "a significant threat to public
    health or the environment." 
    N.Y. Comp. Codes R. & Regs. tit. 6, § 375-2.7
    (b)(3)(b)(ii).
    4      "Maximum Water Contaminant Level" is defined as "the maximum permissible
    level of a contaminant in water which is delivered to any user of a public water system."
    
    N.Y. Comp. Codes R. & Regs. tit. 10, § 5-1.1
    (ap).
    - 10 -
    groundwater. The Town hired Dvirka and Bartilucci ("D&B"), an engineering
    firm, to investigate. In November 1989, D&B confirmed the presence of VOCs in
    the water, including trichloroethylene and tetrachloroethylene, likely
    carcinogens, and recommended the installation of a granulated activated carbon
    adsorption system (the "GAC") to remove the VOCs. A GAC eliminates
    contaminants by pumping untreated water from the wells through carbon units
    and discharging the water into a groundwater storage reservoir. As the carbon
    bed reaches its useful adsorption capacity, however, its effectiveness diminishes
    considerably.
    In the fall of 1990, the Town bought and installed a GAC at the site
    of the two wells. On June 15, 1993, the County Health Department approved the
    GAC for full operation. The GAC commenced operations, and it has remained in
    operation since.
    2.    The Air Stripper Tower
    From December 10, 1990 through May 30, 1995, the Town found that
    rising concentrations of VOCs had "markedly increased" the cost of running the
    GAC system. As Hempstead Water Commissioner Daniel Davis ("Commissioner
    Davis") explained:
    - 11 -
    During this period [from December 1990 through May
    1995], I became concerned that the increasing
    concentrations of VOCs would soon render the GAC
    Treatment System ineffective and too costly or
    impractical to operate. My concerns led me to consider
    supplementing the GAC Treatment System in order to
    improve efficiency and lower the costs of operation.
    (Davis Decl. ¶ 16). Commissioner Davis asked D&B to recommend a system to
    supplement the GAC. In May 1995, D&B proposed an air stripper tower -- a
    packed tower aeration system. The air stripper tower, which rests on a large
    concrete slab, treats the water before it is collected in a clearwell and then pumps
    the water to the GAC.
    On June 12 and 13, 1995, the Town took exploratory soil borings to
    determine whether the soil could bear the weight of an air-stripper tower. The
    Town awarded the contract to construct the air stripper tower in July 1995.
    Construction began in July 1995 and was completed in 1997. The air tower
    commenced operations, and it has remained in operation since.
    3.     The DEC Investigation
    The DEC began its remedial investigation of the NCIA in 1995, and
    thereafter it sampled 41 groundwater monitoring wells between 1996 and 2000,
    - 12 -
    installed four early warning groundwater wells in 1998, and collected soil and
    groundwater samples in 1998 and 1999.
    On May 16, 1995, the DEC and the New York State Department of
    Health (the "State Health Department") held a public meeting in Hempstead to
    address the groundwater contamination. Based on discussions at that meeting,
    the Town began to suspect the NCIA was the source of the groundwater
    contamination.
    On May 23, 1995, the Town followed up with a letter to the DEC: (1)
    expressing concern about the "substantial increase in the levels of contamination"
    in the wells since 1992; (2) requesting consideration for funding for treatment
    under the New York State Superfund Program; (3) requesting a "full, immediate
    and intensive investigation by the DEC to determine who all the polluters are so
    that they will be held accountable for their actions"; and (4) declining to seek
    compensation for the GAC system already in place.
    In 1999, engineers hired by the DEC confirmed the existence of three
    VOC plumes migrating underground from the NCIA towards the Town. In
    September 2000, the DEC issued its final remedial investigation/feasibility study
    report. The report divided the remedial strategy into three parts, and separated
    - 13 -
    the NCIA into three corresponding operable units addressing ground-level
    contamination within the NCIA, contaminated groundwater directly beneath the
    NCIA, and the migration of VOC plumes from the NCIA offsite.
    In October 2003, the DEC issued the final Record of Decision
    ("ROD") selecting a permanent remedy to address the pollution at the NCIA:
    "Full Plume Remediation of Upper and Deep Portions of the Aquifer (to 225 ft
    below ground surface) with In-Well Vapor Stripping/Localized Vapor
    Treatment." This remedy involved pilot testing, the removal of contaminated
    soil, the construction of additional in-well vapor stripping wells (groundwater
    circulation wells), as well as the installation of new monitoring wells and a long-
    term groundwater monitoring program. It also incorporated the existing GAC
    and air stripper tower. The DEC estimated the full remediation would cost $3.5
    million and take seven years.5
    4.     Tolling Agreements
    The State entered into tolling agreements with a number of
    potentially responsible parties -- owners and operators of facilities within the
    5      The project has not yet been completed, and the United States Environmental
    Protection Agency has taken over responsibility for the NCIA.
    - 14 -
    NCIA -- tolling the statute of limitations. The earliest of these agreements came
    into effect on June 27, 2001.
    B.    Procedural History
    On March 13, 2006, the State filed this cost-recovery suit against
    defendants pursuant to section 107 of CERCLA, 
    42 U.S.C. § 9607
    , which permits
    recovery of "all costs of removal or remedial action incurred by the United States
    Government or a State." The State seeks to recover for costs incurred in
    investigating and responding to the off-site groundwater contamination at the
    NCIA, as well as "past, present, and future response costs incurred and to be
    incurred by the State in responding to releases of hazardous substances." Second
    Am. Compl. ¶¶ 146, 147. 6
    On September 24, 2010, the magistrate judge issued a report and
    recommendation ("R&R") recommending that defendants' motion for summary
    judgment be granted on the grounds that the State's claims were barred by the
    6     On March 23, 1998, the Town of Hempstead formally requested reimbursement
    from the DEC for the cost of construction of the tower. In 2000, the DEC and the Town
    entered into an agreement whereby the DEC would reimburse the Town for the cost of
    constructing and installing the tower, while the Town would own, maintain, and
    operate it. As it acknowledged in its briefs and at oral argument, the State is not
    seeking compensation for the GAC because the Town did not seek reimbursement for
    the GAC from the State.
    - 15 -
    statute of limitations. State of New York v. Next Millenium Realty, LLC, No. CV-06-
    1133, 
    2010 WL 8032748
     (E.D.N.Y. Sept. 24, 2010). The district court adopted the
    R&R in its entirety by order dated November 22, 2011.
    The district court concluded that the GAC and the air stripper
    actions were "remedial" and that the actions were attributable to the State. It
    held that the State's claims were subject to the statute of limitations for remedial
    actions, which bars claims filed more than six years after commencement of
    construction. The district court then concluded that the statute had begun to run
    either when the GAC was installed in 1990, or when three foundational borings
    for the air stripper were drilled on June 12 and 13, 1995. Next Millenium, 
    2010 WL 8032748
    , at *12-13. Because the earliest tolling agreement did not come into
    effect until June 27, 2001 -- more than six years after construction commenced on
    June 12, 1995 -- the district court ruled the State's suit, filed on March 13, 2006,
    was time-barred. 
    Id. at *14
    .
    This appeal followed.
    DISCUSSION
    A.    CERCLA
    Congress created CERCLA to address hazardous waste spills by
    authorizing the United States and the States to commence cleanup with public
    - 16 -
    money and then to seek the recovery of costs from polluters. 
    42 U.S.C. § 9607
    (a)(4)(A). Congress deliberately structured this regime to allow federal
    and state governments to respond to spills immediately while leaving the
    determination of liability and financial responsibility for later. See, e.g., New York
    v. Shore Realty Corp., 
    759 F.2d 1032
    , 1041 (2d Cir. 1985) ("EPA can sue for
    reimbursement of cleanup costs from any responsible parties it can locate,
    allowing the federal government to respond immediately while later trying to
    shift financial responsibility to others." (citation omitted)).
    We have construed CERCLA liberally to advance the dual goals of
    cleaning up hazardous waste and holding polluters responsible for their actions.
    See B.F. Goodrich Co. v. Murtha, 
    958 F.2d 1192
    , 1198 (2d Cir. 1992) ("Because it is a
    remedial statute, CERCLA must be construed liberally to effectuate its two
    primary goals: (1) enabling the EPA to respond efficiently and expeditiously to
    toxic spills, and (2) holding those parties responsible for the releases liable for the
    costs of the cleanup."); Prisco v. A&D Carting Corp., 
    168 F.3d 593
    , 602 (2d Cir.
    1999) ("As a remedial statute, CERCLA should be construed liberally to give
    effect to its purposes." (quoting B.F. Goodrich v. Betkoski, 
    99 F.3d 505
    , 514 (2d Cir.
    1996) (internal quotation marks omitted)).
    - 17 -
    Section 107 of CERCLA authorizes federal and state governments to
    recover response costs from potentially responsible parties ("PRPs") for both
    removal and remedial actions. 
    42 U.S.C. § 9607
    (a)(4)(A). Removal actions are
    clean-up or removal measures taken to respond to immediate threats to public
    health and safety. 
    42 U.S.C. § 9601
    (23) 7; see also Minnesota v. Kalman W. Abrams
    Metals, Inc., 
    155 F.3d 1019
    , 1024 (8th Cir. 1998) (removal actions are those "taken
    to counter imminent and substantial threats to public health and welfare");
    United States v. W.R. Grace & Co., 
    429 F.3d 1224
    , 1244 (9th Cir. 2005) ("Courts have
    7     
    42 U.S.C. § 9601
    (23) provides:
    The terms "remove" or "removal" mean[] the cleanup or removal of
    released hazardous substances from the environment, such actions
    as may be necessary taken in the event of the threat of release of
    hazardous substances into the environment, such actions as may be
    necessary to monitor, assess, and evaluate the release or threat of
    release of hazardous substances, the disposal of removed material,
    or the taking of such other actions as may be necessary to prevent,
    minimize, or mitigate damage to the public health or welfare or to
    the environment, which may otherwise result from a release or
    threat of release. The term includes, in addition, without being
    limited to, security fencing or other measures to limit access,
    provision of alternative water supplies, temporary evacuation and
    housing of threatened individuals not otherwise provided for,
    action taken under section 9604(b) of this title, and any emergency
    assistance which may be provided under the Disaster Relief and
    Emergency Assistance Act [
    42 U.S.C.A. § 5121
     et seq.].
    - 18 -
    . . . stressed the immediacy of a threat in deciding whether a cleanup is a removal
    action." (collecting cases)). Accord Memorandum from Stephen Luftig, Director,
    Office of Emergency and Remedial Response, Use of Non-Time Critical Removal
    Authority in Superfund Response Actions, to Regions I-X Program and Legal
    Division Directors (Feb. 14, 2000) (emphasizing immediate nature of removal
    actions), available at http://www.epa.gov/superfund/policy/remedy/
    pdfs/memofeb2000-s.pdf (the "EPA Guidance").8
    Remedial actions are generally actions designed to permanently
    remediate hazardous waste. 
    42 U.S.C. § 9601
    (24)9; see also Schaefer v. Town of
    8       While the EPA Guidance is not entitled to the level of deference afforded by
    Chevron, U.S.A., Inc. v. Natural Res. Def. Council, Inc., 
    467 U.S. 837
     (1984), it is entitled to
    some deference. See Skidmore v. Swift & Co., 
    323 U.S. 134
    , 139, 140 (1944) (rulings,
    interpretations, opinion letters, policy statements, agency manuals, and enforcement
    guidelines are "entitled to respect" to the extent they possess the "power to persuade");
    see also Alaska Dep't of Envtl. Conservation v. EPA, 
    540 U.S. 461
    , 487-88 (2004) (although
    internal agency guidance memoranda do not receive Chevron deference, "[c]ogent
    'administrative interpretations . . . not [the] products of formal rulemaking . . .
    nevertheless warrant respect. '" (alterations in original and citations omitted)). In United
    States v. W.R. Grace & Co., the Ninth Circuit gave some deference to the EPA Guidance
    in determining that an action was removal and not remedial in nature. 
    429 F.3d 1224
    ,
    1243 (9th Cir. 2005).
    9
    
    42 U.S.C. § 9601
    (24) provides in part:
    The terms "remedy" or "remedial action" mean[] those actions
    consistent with permanent remedy taken instead of or in addition
    to removal actions in the event of a release or threatened release of
    - 19 -
    Victor, 
    457 F.3d 188
    , 195 (2d Cir. 2006) (remedial actions are "generally long-term
    or permanent containment or disposal programs") (quoting Shore Realty Corp.,
    
    759 F.2d at 1040
     (internal quotation marks omitted)); California ex rel. Cal. Dep't of
    Toxic Substances Control v. Neville Chem. Co., 
    358 F.3d 661
    , 667 (9th Cir. 2004)
    ("remedial actions generally are permanent responses") (quoting Geraghty and
    Miller, Inc. v. Conoco, Inc, 
    234 F.3d 917
    , 926 (5th Cir. 2000) (internal quotation
    marks omitted)).
    Removal and remedial actions are governed by different statutes of
    limitations. For removal actions, the government must seek to recoup costs
    within three years "after completion of the removal action." 
    42 U.S.C. § 9613
    (g)(2)(A). For remedial actions, the government must seek to recoup costs
    a hazardous substance into the environment, to prevent or
    minimize the release of hazardous substances so that they do not
    migrate to cause substantial danger to present or future public
    health or welfare or the environment. The term includes, but is not
    limited to, such actions at the location of the release as storage,
    confinement, perimeter protection using dikes, trenches, or ditches,
    clay cover, neutralization, cleanup of released hazardous
    substances and associated contamination materials, recycling or
    reuse, diversion, destruction, segregation of reactive wastes,
    dredging or excavations, repair or replacement of leaking
    containers, collection of leachate and runoff, onsite treatment or
    incineration, provision of alternative water supplies, and any
    monitoring reasonably required to assure that such actions protect
    the public health and welfare and the environment.
    - 20 -
    within six years after "initiation of physical on-site construction of the remedial
    action." 
    42 U.S.C. § 9613
    (g)(2)(B). 10
    Whether a suit to recover response costs under section 107 of
    CERCLA is a "removal action" or a "remedial action" is a question of law that we
    review de novo. W.R. Grace & Co., 
    429 F.3d at 1234-35
     ("Whether the . . . cleanup
    activity was a removal action -- or, on the other hand, a remedial action in
    removal action's clothing -- is a question of statutory interpretation" and thus, "a
    legal issue that we review as a matter of law."); Geraghty and Miller, Inc., 
    234 F.3d at 925-26
     (classification of an activity as "removal" or "remedial" is "determined
    as a matter of law"). Likewise, to the extent the resolution of this legal question
    turns on factual issues, we review the district court's grant of summary judgment
    de novo, applying well-settled principles governing summary judgment motions.
    Lopes v. Dep't of Soc. Servs., 
    696 F.3d 180
    , 184 (2d Cir. 2012).
    B.     Analysis
    We hold that, to the extent it concerns the GAC and air stripper
    tower, this suit is a "removal action" subject to the three-year statute of
    limitations, which is triggered by the "completion of the removal action."
    10     Section 9613(g)(2)(B) further provides that any "costs incurred in the removal
    action may be recovered in the cost recovery action" for the remedial action, "if the
    remedial action is initiated within 3 years after the completion of the removal action."
    - 21 -
    Because the removal measures cannot be deemed to have been completed in any
    sense before the State's adoption of a remediation plan that incorporated them,
    and this action was commenced within three years of that earliest possible date,
    the statute of limitations had not run as of the time this action was commenced.
    Hence, we hold that the district court erred in dismissing this action as untimely.
    1.     The Nature of the Cleanup Measures
    We hold that the GAC and air stripper tower were removal
    measures, for the following reasons.
    First, both systems were installed in response to an imminent public
    health hazard, a defining characteristic of removal actions. See Kalman W. Abrams
    Metals, Inc., 
    155 F.3d at 1024
    ; W.R. Grace & Co., 
    429 F.3d at 1244
     (collecting cases).
    The contamination in Hempstead's drinking water posed an immediate threat.
    As the engineering firm D&B recognized in its November 1989 report:
    Wells 1 and 2 at the Iris Place Pump Station have
    Volatile Organic Compound (VOC) concentrations
    approaching current New York State Maximum
    Contaminant Levels for potable water. The wells are
    critical to the operation of the Bowling Green Water
    District; consequently, immediate action is required to
    ensure that the wells remain operational at all times.
    - 22 -
    (Aff. of Daniel Davis, Ex. 1 at 3) (emphasis added). The Town installed the GAC
    in response to this impending substantial threat to public health.
    Similarly, the Town constructed the air stripper tower in direct
    response to rising VOC levels that were overwhelming the GAC system and
    diminishing its effectiveness. After Commissioner Davis grew concerned that
    the increasing levels of VOCs would "render the GAC Treatment System
    ineffective and too costly or impractical to operate," he issued a directive to carry
    out design work for the air stripper tower to ensure that the Bowling Green wells
    would be "capable of supplying adequate quantities of potable water to
    customers in accordance with the New York State Sanitary Code." (Davis Decl.
    ¶¶ 16, 17). There is no question these two measures were taken by the Town in
    response to concerns about the imminent threat to safe drinking water.
    Second, both the GAC and the air stripper tower were designed as
    measures to address water contamination at the endpoint -- the wells -- and not
    to permanently remediate the problem by "prevent[ing] or minimiz[ing] the
    release of hazardous substances so that they do not migrate" from the underlying
    source of contamination at the NCIA. 
    42 U.S.C. § 9601
    (24); see W.R. Grace & Co.,
    
    429 F.3d at 1247
     (finding cleanup activity to be removal action where it did not
    - 23 -
    "fully eliminate the public health threat or amount to a full-blown remediation");
    see also City of Moses Lake v. United States, 
    458 F. Supp. 2d 1198
    , 1213 (E.D. Wash.
    2006) (cleanup action taken by the City at drinking wells to lower TCE amounts
    to below maximum contaminant levels -- rather than abating the contamination
    in the aquifer or at the Superfund site proper -- bears "all of the hallmarks of a
    'removal action' -- an interim response to minimize and stabilize imminent
    harms to human health"). Indeed, at the time the GAC and air stripper were
    built, neither the State nor the Town knew the source of the VOCs in the drinking
    water pumped from the wells, and they were responding to a water-supply
    problem, not an environmental cleanup concern. The contaminated water was
    already in the wells, and the water came out of the wells into the GAC and air
    stripper tower so that the contaminants could be removed from the wells. These
    were not remedial measures intended to prevent the well water from being
    contaminated in the first place.
    The GAC and air stripper tower were implemented as measures to
    minimize and mitigate the damage from the NCIA, rather than to permanently
    eliminate it. See 
    42 U.S.C. § 9601
    (24) ("remedial" action defined as "those actions
    consistent with permanent remedy"). Neither project was designed to remedy
    - 24 -
    the underlying source of the contamination, namely, the hazardous waste at the
    NCIA. Indeed, the fact that the VOCs were migrating from the NCIA was not
    even confirmed until 1999 -- nine years after the GAC was built and four years
    after the air stripper tower was built. Therefore, the Town's actions in 1990 and
    1995 could not have been intended to permanently remediate the contamination
    coming from the NCIA.11 It was not until October 2003 that the State, having
    conducted lengthy studies and considered a number of alternatives, determined
    that a number of new cleanup measures throughout the NCIA site, along with
    the existing GAC and air stripper tower, would be appropriate means of
    remediating the contamination coming from the NCIA.
    Defendants argue that cleanup actions do not have to address the
    underlying source of contamination to qualify as "remedial," citing Morrison
    Enters., LLC v. Dravo Corp., 
    638 F.3d 594
     (8th Cir. 2011). In Morrison, the City of
    Hastings, Nebraska, removed contaminated wells and installed new wells and
    11
    Defendants point to evidence that Commissioner Davis stated that the GAC "was
    not intended to be a temporary system," that the intent was "to construct a system that
    would permanently address the contamination found in the Bowling Green wells."
    Even so, as discussed further below, the GAC was not a permanent remediation in the
    sense that it did not address the source of the contamination -- the VOC plumes
    migrating from the NCIA. Moreover, even though the GAC eventually became a part
    of the permanent solution, as discussed below, it could still also qualify as a removal
    action during the relevant time period for purposes of the statute of limitations.
    - 25 -
    water mains to remediate contaminated drinking water. 
    Id. at 600
    . The City
    argued that these actions were removal measures because "the work on the water
    supply system did not clean one molecule of water or rid the environment of any
    contamination whatsoever." 
    Id. at 608
     (internal quotation marks omitted). The
    Eighth Circuit disagreed, holding that "retiring contaminated wells and
    obtaining uncontaminated supplies of water to meet the needs of the City's
    residents for the foreseeable future is more in the nature of a permanent
    remedy." 
    Id.
     In doing so, it relied on the fact that the phrase "provision of
    alternative water supplies" is found in the definition of "remedial" actions. 
    Id. at 609
    ; see 
    42 U.S.C. § 9601
    (24). The court noted:
    [t]he City's narrow interpretation of the term remedial
    action would render Congress's specific inclusion of the
    provision of alternative water supplies in the second
    sentence of the definition a nullity. By its inherent
    nature, the provision of alternative water supplies never
    cleans contaminated water, nor rids the environment of
    contamination.
    Morrison, 
    638 F.3d at 609
    . Thus, because the measures constituted the "provision
    of alternative water supplies" and were consistent with the definition of
    "remedy," which includes actions to "prevent or minimize the release of
    hazardous substances," the court concluded they were remedial.
    - 26 -
    In contrast, the Town's actions in this case do not involve the
    provision of alternative water supplies. The GAC and air stripper tower were
    used to remove sufficient amounts of contamination from polluted water to
    render the water safe to drink. That is hardly the same as retiring contaminated
    wells and building an entirely new water supply system. Thus, Morrison is
    inapposite.
    Additionally, even though the GAC and the air stripper tower
    eventually were adopted as part of a permanent remedial solution, they still
    constituted "removal" actions at all times relevant to the statute of limitations
    question. W.R. Grace & Co., 
    429 F.3d at 1244
     ("As a practical matter, removal
    actions are often permanent solutions such as can be the case in a typical soil or
    drum removal.") (quoting EPA Guidance at 3 n. 3 (internal quotations marks
    omitted)); Geraghty and Miller, Inc., 
    234 F.3d at 927
     ("Even if the replacements for
    these wells are integral to the long-term remediation of the site, that does not
    mean that their initial placement cannot be categorized as removal."). Likewise,
    even if the GAC and the air stripper tower performed certain functions that
    might be considered "remedial," such as "prevent[ing] or minimiz[ing] the
    release of hazardous substances so they do not migrate to cause substantial
    - 27 -
    danger to present or future public health or welfare," 
    42 U.S.C. § 9601
    (24)
    (definition of remedy), that does not preclude them from being classified as
    "removal." Geraghty and Miller, Inc., 
    234 F.3d at 927
     (noting there can be overlap
    between remedial and removal activities); Gen. Elec. Co. v. Litton Indus.
    Automation Sys., Inc., 
    920 F.2d 1415
    , 1419 (8th Cir. 1990) (finding excavation to be
    a removal activity even though CERCLA lists it as a remedial activity), abrogated
    on other grounds by Key Tronic Corp. v. United States, 
    511 U.S. 809
     (1994).
    Thus, we conclude, as a matter of law, that under the circumstances
    of this case, these two systems, which were built in response to an immediate
    health threat and designed to render the drinking water safe without addressing
    the underlying source of pollution, were "removal" and not "remedial" actions at
    least up until the time that the State adopted a remediation plan that
    incorporated them.12
    12     We need not, and do not, hold that all GAC systems, or all air stripper towers,
    necessarily constitute removal actions no matter the circumstances under which they
    are implemented. An air stripper tower, for example, could be constructed with the
    understanding that it would constitute a permanent solution to the relevant water
    safety issue, or, where the underlying source or pollution is known, with the
    understanding that it would address the source of the pollution. Nothing in this
    opinion prevents consideration of these or other factors on a case-by-case basis to
    determine whether a given air stripper tower or GAC system constitutes a removal or a
    remedial action under CERCLA. Nor do we hold that such a removal measure
    automatically terminates as such at the moment a larger remedial plan incorporating it
    - 28 -
    2.     Defendants' remaining arguments
    a. The duration and cost of the actions
    Defendants argue that the duration and cost of these measures
    indicate they are remedial actions. They point out that the GAC has been
    running since 1990 and the air stripper tower since approximately 1997. They
    also argue that the cost of the projects -- the GAC cost $1.25 million and the air
    stripper tower cost $1.2 million -- supports the conclusion that these are remedial
    actions because they are simply too expensive to be removal actions.
    In support of their argument, the defendants point to a section of
    CERLCA that provides that a removal measure "shall not continue after
    $2,000,000 has been obligated for response actions or 12 months has elapsed from
    the date of initial response." 
    42 U.S.C. § 9604
    (c)(1); accord 
    40 C.F.R. § 300.415
    (b)(5). There are, however, two exceptions to this cap: (1) if there is an
    "immediate risk to public health or welfare or the environment" requiring
    "continued response actions" to "prevent, limit, or mitigate an emergency," or (2)
    if the "[c]ontinued response action is otherwise appropriate and consistent with
    is adopted. It is sufficient for the instant analytical purpose to note that the removal
    status of the GAC and air stripper tower measures here ended, if at all, no earlier than
    the date the State adopted its remedial plan, and that the State's cost recovery action is
    therefore timely.
    - 29 -
    the remedial action to be taken." 
    42 U.S.C. § 9604
    (c)(1); accord 
    40 C.F.R. § 300.415
    (b)(5)(i) and (ii).
    As an initial matter, defendants concede that "these limits are not
    binding here since the State performed the response measures," rather than the
    federal government. Defs.-Apps.' Br. at 34. In addition, the GAC and air stripper
    tower fall within both exceptions as there was an "immediate risk to public
    health" and the "continued response actions" were required to "prevent, limit, or
    mitigate an emergency." 
    42 U.S.C. § 9604
    (c)(1); accord 
    40 C.F.R. § 300.415
    (b)(5)(i)
    and (ii). The Town instituted these measures in response to rising levels of VOCs
    that posed a serious threat to drinking water safety. Accordingly, the limitations
    of 
    42 U.S.C. § 9604
    (c)(1) are not applicable. See W.R. Grace, 
    429 F.3d at 1226, 1249
    (holding district court did not err in determining action was removal even
    though it cost over $54 million and took several years to complete because there
    was an immediate risk to public health).
    Moreover, the EPA Guidance persuasively provides that neither the
    cost nor the duration of a project is dispositive in determining whether the
    project is removal or remedial:
    While some courts have looked to [the length of time
    necessary to complete an action] in distinguishing
    - 30 -
    between removal and remedial actions, this
    characteristic usually is not helpful; removal actions are
    most often of short duration, but they certainly can be
    long-running responses, too, thereby undercutting the
    probative value of duration . . . in deciding whether an
    action is removal rather than remedial in nature.
    EPA Guidance at 3 n.2. The EPA Guidance also recognizes that removal actions
    can involve considerable expense:
    [E]ven expensive and complex response actions may be
    removal action candidates if they are relatively time-
    sensitive -- regardless of whether any further action
    might ultimately be selected for a site.
    Id. at 4.
    Because both the GAC and the air stripper tower were urgent
    responses designed to combat rising levels of VOCs that threatened the water
    quality, the duration and cost of these measures do not mean that they
    constituted remedial actions ab initio. See id. at 4 n.4 (the $2 million and 12 month
    limitations "apply only to fund-financed actions, and serve as a fiscal check; they
    are not found in the statutory definition of 'removal' and do not control which
    actions can be taken as removals").
    - 31 -
    b.    The use of the word "remedial" by the State
    The district court found that the State's use of the word "remedial" in
    conjunction with the GAC system and the air stripper tower showed they were
    remedial measures. Specifically, the State referred to these as "interim remedial
    measures" and as "remedial" alternatives in the ROD. Next Millenium, 
    2010 WL 8032748
    , at *11. In addition, in its interrogatory responses, the State referred to
    "additional remedial measures in order to complete the remediating of
    Hazardous Substances." [Maldonado Decl. in Supp. of Motion for Summ. J., Ex.
    7, at 22]. Finally, defendants contend that Jeff Trad, an engineer at the DEC, on
    one occasion described the air stripper tower as part of the "remediation" of the
    groundwater in a conversation with Commissioner Davis.
    These generic uses of the word "remedial," however, do not require
    a finding that the measures were remedial in the statutory sense at the time they
    were implemeted. The word "remedial" is often used in environmental
    discussions in its common every day sense, namely, "intended as a remedy."
    Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary 970 (1980); see also Geraghty and Miller, Inc.,
    
    234 F.3d at 926
     ("[c]onfusion often results because the industry use of
    'remediation' is not synonymous with CERLCA's definition of 'remedial.'"). The
    - 32 -
    use of the word by itself does not render an action "remedial" for purposes of the
    statute of limitations. City of Moses Lake v. United States, 
    416 F. Supp. 2d 1015
    ,
    1024 (E.D. Wash. 2005) (use of word "remedial" in a "generic sense" in several
    documents over a thirteen-year period "do[es] not constitute an admission . . .
    that this cleanup is now in its 'remedial' phase as opposed to a 'removal' phase"
    under CERCLA). In its generic sense, "remedy" encompasses both temporary
    measures to address immediate threats to public health as well as permanent
    solutions to eliminate sources of contamination. Furthermore, New York law
    defines "interim remedial measure" to include "activities to address both
    emergency and non-emergency site conditions," 6 
    N.Y. Comp. Codes R. & Regs. tit. 6, § 375-1.2
    (ab), clearly encompassing what would be considered "removal"
    actions under CERCLA.
    In short, the Town's efforts here -- a GAC and an air stripper tower
    -- were removal measures taken to respond to the immediate health concerns
    presented by contaminated well water while it investigated the source of the
    contamination and sought to develop a more coherent and fuller response to
    eliminate permanently the underlying source of the contamination. This action
    - 33 -
    was commenced within three years of the State's adoption of a comprehensive
    remediation plan that incorporated the preexisting removal technologies.
    CONCLUSION
    For the foregoing reasons, we hold that the cleanup activities at
    issue were "removal" measures at all relevant times and the State's claims are
    governed by the three-year statute of limitations. Accordingly, the State’s suit is
    not time-barred and the judgment of the district court is VACATED and this case
    is REMANDED for further proceedings consistent with this opinion.
    - 34 -