Hamilton v. Dallas County ( 2023 )

Case: 21-10133 Document: 00516863689 Page: 1 Date Filed: 08/18/2023
United States Court of Appeals
for the Fifth Circuit United States Court of Appeals
Fifth Circuit
____________ FILED
August 18, 2023
No. 21-10133 Lyle W. Cayce
____________ Clerk
Felesia Hamilton; Tashara Caldwell; Brenda Johnson;
Arrisha Knight; Jamesina Robinson; Debbie Stoxstell;
Felicia Smith; Tameka Anderson-Jackson; Tammy
Island,
Plaintiffs—Appellants,
versus
Dallas County, doing business as Dallas County Sheriff’s Department,
Defendant—Appellee.
______________________________
Appeal from the United States District Court
for the Northern District of Texas
USDC No. 3:20-CV-313
______________________________
Before Richman, Chief Judge, and Higginbotham, Jones, Smith,
Stewart, Elrod, Southwick, Haynes, Graves, Higginson,
Willett, Ho, Duncan, Engelhardt, Oldham, Wilson, and
Douglas, Circuit Judges.
Don R. Willett, Circuit Judge, joined by Richman, Chief Judge, and
Higginbotham, Stewart, Elrod, Southwick, Haynes,
Graves, Higginson, Ho, Duncan, Engelhardt, Wilson, and
Douglas, Circuit Judges:
For almost 60 years, Title VII has made it unlawful for an employer
“to fail or refuse to hire or to discharge any individual, or otherwise to
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discriminate against any individual with respect to his [or her] compensation,
terms, conditions, or privileges of employment, because of such individual’s
race, color, religion, sex, or national origin.” 1 Despite this broad language,
we have long limited the universe of actionable adverse employment actions
to so-called “ultimate employment decisions.” We end that interpretive
incongruity today.
* * *
The Dallas County Sheriff’s Department gives its detention service
officers two days off each week. The department uses a sex-based policy to
determine which two days an officer can pick. Only men can select full
weekends off—women cannot. Instead, female officers can pick either two
weekdays off or one weekend day plus one weekday. Bottom line: Female
officers never get a full weekend off.
Nine female detention service officers sued Dallas County, alleging
that this sex-based scheduling policy violates Title VII’s prohibition against
sex discrimination. Constrained by our decades-old, atextual precedent, a
panel upheld dismissal of the officers’ complaint, ruling that the
discriminatory scheduling policy did not amount to an “ultimate
employment decision.” But the panel noted that this case was the “ideal
vehicle” for the en banc court to align our circuit with Title VII’s text.
Today we hold that a plaintiff plausibly alleges a disparate-treatment
claim under Title VII if she pleads discrimination in hiring, firing,
compensation, or the “terms, conditions, or privileges” of her employment.
She need not also show an “ultimate employment decision,” a phrase that
appears nowhere in the statute and that thwarts legitimate claims of
_____________________
1
42 U.S.C. § 2000e-2(a)(1).
2
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workplace bias. Here, giving men full weekends off while denying the same
to women—a scheduling policy that the County admits is sex-based—states
a plausible claim of discrimination under Title VII.
We REVERSE and REMAND.
I
This case concerns a sex-based scheduling system for jail guards in the
Dallas County Sheriff’s Department.
The plaintiffs are nine female correctional officers who allege that
their shift schedules used to be “determined based on seniority.” Beginning
in April 2019, however, the County adopted a sex-based scheduling policy
under which “only male officers are given full weekends off.” “Female
employees are not given full weekends off and can only receive weekdays
and/or partial weekends off.” But weekend days are “preferred days off” for
both men and women. As a result, schedules are sex-based even though
“male and female employees perform the same tasks.” 2
After exhausting their administrative remedies, the Officers sued the
County for sex discrimination under Title VII, 42 U.S.C. §§ 2000e et seq.
The Officers also asserted a parallel state-law discrimination claim under the
Texas Employment Discrimination Act, Tex. Lab. Code §§ 21.001 et
seq.
_____________________
2
The Officers’ supervisor explained that the rationale behind this policy is “that
it would be unsafe for all the men to be off during the week and that it was safer for the men
to be off on the weekends.” However, “male and female employees perform the same tasks
and the number of inmates during the week is the same as the number of inmates on the
weekend.” The County also states in its briefs that the policy was only “temporary,” but
this fact does not appear in the complaint.
3
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The district court granted the County’s motion to dismiss under Rule
12(b)(6), noting that, under our precedent, “an adverse employment action
for Title VII discrimination claims consists of ‘ultimate employment
decisions such as hiring, granting leave, discharging, promoting, and
compensating.’” 3 Applying that precedent, the district court reasoned that
“[c]hanges to an employee’s work schedule, such as the denial of weekends
off, are not an ultimate employment decision.” 4 Because the adverse-
employment-action element of the prima-facie Title VII case was missing,
the district court dismissed the complaint. 5
On initial appeal, a panel of our court affirmed, reasoning along the
same lines. Noting that the County did “not dispute its discriminatory
intent,” 6 the panel observed that “[t]he conduct complained of here fits
squarely within the ambit of Title VII’s proscribed conduct: discrimination
with respect to the terms, conditions, or privileges of one’s employment
because of one’s sex.” 7 The panel added:
• “Given the generally accepted meaning of those terms, the
County would appear to have violated Title VII.” 8
• “Surely allowing men to have full weekends off, but not
women, on the basis of sex rather than a neutral factor like
merit or seniority, constitutes discrimination with respect
_____________________
3
Hamilton v. Dallas Cnty., 2020 WL 7047055, at *2 (N.D. Tex. Dec. 1, 2020)
(quoting Felton v. Polles, 315 F.3d 470, 486 (5th Cir. 2002)).
4
Id. (citing Benningfield v. City of Houston, 157 F.3d 369 (5th Cir. 1998)).
5
Id. at *3.
6
Hamilton v. Dallas Cnty., 42 F.4th 550, 553 (5th Cir. 2022).
7
Id. at 555.
8
Id.
4
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to the terms or conditions of those women’s
employment.” 9
• “[T]he benefits that come with seniority, here, the ability
to request one’s preferred days off, should amount to a
privilege of employment.” 10
Even so, the panel concluded that it was “bound by this circuit’s
precedent, which requires a Title VII plaintiff” to have “suffered some
adverse employment action by the employer” and which says that “adverse
employment actions include only ultimate employment decisions such as
hiring, granting leave, discharging, promoting, or compensating.” 11 Because
“the denial of weekends off is not an ultimate employment decision,” the
panel affirmed the district court’s dismissal. 12 The panel concluded by urging
the full court to “reexamine our ultimate-employment-decision
requirement” in light of our deviation from Title VII’s plain text. 13 We
granted rehearing en banc to do so.
II
Our standard of review and the dismissal rules under Rule 12(b)(6) are
well settled. “We review de novo the district court’s dismissal for failure to
_____________________
9
Id.
10
Id. (footnote omitted).
11
Id. (cleaned up) (first quoting McCoy v. City of Shreveport, 492 F.3d 551, 556 (5th
Cir. 2007); and then quoting Welsh v. Fort Bend Indep. Sch. Dist., 941 F.3d 818, 824 (5th
Cir. 2019)).
12
Id. at 556 (first citing Hernandez v. Sikorsky Support Servs., Inc., 495 F. App’x
435, 438 (5th Cir. 2012) (per curiam) (unpublished); and then citing Mylett v. City of Corpus
Christi, 97 F. App’x 473, 475 (5th Cir. 2004) (per curiam) (unpublished)).
13
Id. at 557.
5
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state a claim under Rule 12(b)(6).” 14 “To survive a motion to dismiss, a
complaint must contain sufficient factual matter, accepted as true, to ‘state a
claim to relief that is plausible on its face.’” 15 “A claim has facial plausibility
when the plaintiff pleads factual content that allows the court to draw the
reasonable inference that the defendant is liable for the misconduct
alleged.” 16
III
The facts alleged paint a clear picture of disparate treatment “because
of” the Officers’ “sex.” 17 And the County does not dispute its
discriminatory intent. 18 Therefore, the only issue before us is whether the
Officers have plausibly alleged facts constituting an actionable adverse
employment action under Title VII.
A
We begin by considering whether Section 703(a) of Title VII, 19 the so-
called anti-discrimination provision, 20 applies only to “ultimate employment
decisions.” It is not so limited.
_____________________
14
Ghedi v. Mayorkas, 16 F.4th 456, 463 (5th Cir. 2021).
15
Ashcroft v. Iqbal, 556 U.S. 662, 678 (2009) (quoting Bell Atl. Corp. v. Twombly,
550 U.S. 544, 570 (2007)).
16
Id.17
42 U.S.C. § 2000e-2(a)(1).
18
See Hamilton, 42 F.4th at 553.
19
42 U.S.C. § 2000e-2(a).
20
See Burlington N. & Santa Fe Ry. Co. v. White, 548 U.S. 53, 61 (2006).
6
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“As with any question of statutory interpretation, our analysis begins
with the plain language of the statute.” 21 Section 703(a) states:
It shall be an unlawful employment practice for an employer—
(1) to fail or refuse to hire or to discharge any individual,
or otherwise to discriminate against any individual with
respect to his compensation, terms, conditions, or
privileges of employment, because of such individual’s
race, color, religion, sex, or national origin; or
(2) to limit, segregate, or classify his employees or
applicants for employment in any way which would
deprive or tend to deprive any individual of employment
opportunities or otherwise adversely affect his status as
an employee, because of such individual’s race, color,
religion, sex, or national origin. 22
Our focus today is on the first subsection. 23
For decades, our precedent has limited disparate-treatment liability
under Section 703(a)(1) to “ultimate employment decisions.” By this phrase,
we meant “‘only ultimate employment decisions such as hiring, granting
leave, discharging, promoting, or compensating.’” 24
_____________________
21
Jimenez v. Quarterman, 555 U.S. 113, 118 (2009).
22
42 U.S.C. § 2000e-2(a).
23
Although neighboring § 2000e-2(a)(2)’s prohibition is broader, making it
unlawful “to limit, segregate, or classify . . . employees . . . in any way which would deprive
or tend to deprive [them] of employment opportunities or otherwise adversely affect [their]
status as . . . employee[s], because of . . . race” or “sex,” this language forms the basis for
disparate-impact claims, whereas disparate-treatment claims are properly brought under
§ 2000e-2(a)(1). See Carpenter v. Stephen F. Austin State Univ., 706 F.2d 608, 619 n.7 (5th
Cir. 1983).
24
Welsh, 941 F.3d at 824 (quoting McCoy, 492 F.3d at 559); see also Alvarado v. Tex.
Rangers, 492 F.3d 605, 612 (5th Cir. 2007); Pegram v. Honeywell, Inc., 361 F.3d 272, 282
(5th Cir. 2004); Thompson v. City of Waco, 764 F.3d 500, 503 (5th Cir. 2014) (“For Title
7
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We first used that phrase almost 30 years ago in Dollis v. Rubin, which
declared that “Title VII was designed to address ultimate employment
decisions, not to address every decision made by employers that arguably
might have some tangential effect upon those ultimate decisions.” 25 But the
only authority Dollis cited for this proposition was Page v. Bolger, a 1981 case
(and the origin of the phrase “ultimate employment decision”) in which the
Fourth Circuit observed that then-extant Title VII caselaw had “focused on
the question whether there has been discrimination in what could be
characterized as ultimate employment decisions such as hiring, granting
leave, discharging, promoting, and compensating.” 26 Ironically, the Fourth
Circuit in Page then qualified this comment, writing, “[W]e suggest no
general test for defining those ‘ultimate employment decisions’ . . . covered
by . . . antidiscrimination provisions of Title VII. . . . [T]here are certainly
[decisions] other[] than those we have so far specifically identified that may
be so considered for example, entry into training programs.” 27 Thus, Dollis’s
embrace of an “ultimate employment decision” rule was based on a
misinterpretation of Page, which used that phrase merely to describe trends
_____________________
VII and § 1981 discrimination claims, we have held that adverse employment actions
consist of ‘ultimate employment decisions’ such as hiring, firing, demoting, promoting,
granting leave, and compensating.”).
25
77 F.3d 777, 781–82 (5th Cir. 1995) (per curiam). Although Dollis involved a claim
not of discrimination in violation of 42 U.S.C. § 2000e-2(a), but of retaliation for engaging
in Title VII-protected activity in violation of § 2000e-3(a), Dollis did not limit its holding
to retaliation claims, and our subsequent decisions applied Dollis’s “ultimate employment
decision” requirement in disparate-treatment cases as well. See Felton, 315 F.3d at 486.
26
645 F.2d 227, 233 (4th Cir. 1981) (en banc).
27
Id.8
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in Title VII litigation, not to restrict Title VII’s broad coverage to a handful
of examples of discrimination mentioned in the Page opinion. 28
Bound by this standard, we have reached some remarkable
conclusions. Consider Peterson v. Linear Controls, Inc., where the plaintiff
“alleged that he and his black team members had to work outside without
access to water, while his white team members worked inside with air
conditioning.” 29 Noting that “[o]ur court strictly construes adverse
employment actions to include only ‘ultimate employment decisions,’ such
as ‘hiring, granting leave, discharging, promoting, or compensating,’” we
held “that these working conditions [were] not adverse employment actions
because they [did] not concern ultimate employment decisions.” 30
But that’s not what the statute says—at all.31 Nowhere does Title VII
say, explicitly or implicitly, that employment discrimination is lawful if
limited to non-ultimate employment decisions. To be sure, the statute
prohibits discrimination in ultimate employment decisions—“hir[ing],”
“refus[ing] to hire,” “discharg[ing],” and “compensation”—but it also
makes it unlawful for an employer “otherwise to discriminate against” an
_____________________
28
The Fourth Circuit itself has also disapproved of our interpretation of Page. See
Von Gunten v. Maryland, 243 F.3d 858, 866 n.3 (4th Cir. 2001).
29
757 F. App’x 370, 373 (5th Cir. 2019) (per curiam), cert. dismissed, 140 S. Ct. 2841
(2020).
30
Id. at 373 (quoting McCoy, 492 F.3d at 559).
31
See Hardison v. Skinner, No. 20-30643, 2022 WL 2668514, at *6 (5th Cir. July 11,
2022) (Dennis, J., specially concurring) (noting that the ultimate-employment-decision
standard is a “judge-crafted limitation” with “no basis in the plain text or legislative history
of Title VII”).
9
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employee “with respect to [her] terms, conditions, or privileges of
employment.” 32
Our ultimate-employment-decision test ignores this key language. But
“[t]hese words cannot be meaningless, else they would not have been
used.” 33 Restricting liability under the statute to “‘ultimate employment
decisions such as hiring, granting leave, discharging, promoting, or
compensating’” 34 renders the statute’s catchall provision all but
superfluous. This we cannot do. 35 “Absent persuasive indications to the
contrary, we presume Congress says what it means and means what it
says.” 36 And here, Congress did not say that Title VII liability is limited to
ultimate employment decisions.
Supreme Court precedent confirms this conclusion. The Court has
held that an adverse employment action “need only be a term, condition, or
privilege of employment.” 37 And it has been clear that a Title VII plaintiff
may recover damages even for “discrimination in the ‘terms, conditions, or
privileges of employment’” that “did not involve a discharge,” “loss of
pay,” or other “concrete effect on [his or her] employment status.” 38 Nor is
_____________________
32
42 U.S.C. § 2000e-2(a)(1).
33
United States v. Butler, 297 U.S. 1, 65 (1936).
34
Welsh, 941 F.3d at 824 (quoting McCoy, 492 F.3d at 559).
35
See Duncan v. Walker, 533 U.S. 167, 174 (2001) (“It is our duty to give effect, if
possible, to every clause and word of a statute.” (quoting United States v. Menasche, 348
U.S. 528, 538–39 (1955)) (internal quotation marks omitted)).
36
Simmons v. Himmelreich, 578 U.S. 621, 627 (2016).
37
Hishon v. King & Spalding, 467 U.S. 69, 77 (1984).
38
Landgraf v. USI Film Prod., 511 U.S. 244, 254 (1994) (quoting 42 U.S.C. § 2000e-
2(a)(1)).
10
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Title VII’s coverage “limited to ‘economic’ or ‘tangible’ discrimination.” 39
This is because Section 703(a)(1) “not only covers ‘terms’ and ‘conditions’
in the narrow contractual sense, but ‘evinces a congressional intent to strike
at the entire spectrum of disparate treatment of men and women in
employment.’” 40 Any “benefits that comprise the incidents of employment,
or that form an aspect of the relationship between the employer and
employees,” the Court has explained, fall within Title VII’s ban on
discrimination. 41
It is no wonder, then, that “[n]o other court of appeals applies so
narrow a concept of an adverse employment action” as the “‘ultimate
employment decision’ rule.” 42 Satisfied that our “ultimate employment
decision” standard lies on fatally flawed foundations, we flatten it today.
Having done away with our atextual “ultimate employment decision” gloss,
we apply the statute as it is written and as construed by the Supreme Court.
B
It should go without saying by now, but “we think it reasonable to
begin with Title VII’s text.” 43 Under Title VII, it is an unlawful employment
practice for an employer “to fail or refuse to hire or to discharge any
individual, or otherwise to discriminate against any individual with respect to
his compensation, terms, conditions, or privileges of employment, because
_____________________
39
Meritor Sav. Bank, FSB v. Vinson, 477 U.S. 57, 64 (1986).
40
Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Servs., Inc., 523 U.S. 75, 78 (1998) (quoting Meritor,
477 U.S. at 64).
41
Hishon, 467 U.S. at 75 (cleaned up) (first quoting S. Rep. No. 867, 88th Cong.,
2d Sess., 11 (1964)); and then quoting Allied Chem. & Alkali Workers v. Pittsburgh Plate Glass
Co., 404 U.S. 157, 178 (1971)).
42
Hardison, 2022 WL 1136038, at *6 (Dennis, J., specially concurring).
43
Groff v. DeJoy, 143 S. Ct. 2279, 2294 (2023).
11
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of such individual’s race, color, religion, sex, or national origin.” 44 This
language contains two elements. To plead a disparate-treatment claim under
Title VII, a plaintiff must allege facts plausibly showing “(1) an ‘adverse
employment action,’ (2) taken against a plaintiff ‘because of her protected
status.’” 45
At issue in this case is the first element: whether the Officers have
adequately shown an “adverse employment action” for Title VII purposes.
That term, which appears nowhere in the statute, is “a judicially-coined term
utilized as shorthand for the statutory phrase ‘compensation, terms,
conditions, or privileges of employment.’” 46 Thus, to plead an adverse
employment action, a plaintiff need only allege facts plausibly showing
discrimination in hiring, firing, compensation, or in the “terms, conditions,
_____________________
44
42 U.S.C. § 2000e-2(a)(1). The Texas Employment Discrimination Act uses
similar language, stating that an employer commits an unlawful employment practice if it
“fails or refuses to hire an individual, discharges an individual, or discriminates in any other
manner against an individual in connection with compensation or the terms, conditions, or
privileges of employment.” Tex. Lab. Code § 21.051(1).
45
Cicalese v. Univ. of Texas Med. Branch, 924 F.3d 762, 767 (5th Cir. 2019) (citation
omitted) (emphasis omitted).
At the pleading stage, a plaintiff need not plead a prima facie case under the
McDonnell Douglas framework, 411 U.S. 792 (1973), though it is sometimes helpful to frame
the analysis that way to determine whether a plaintiff has been discriminated against because
of a protected characteristic. See Swierkiewicz v. Sorema N.A., 534 U.S. 506, 510–11 (2002);
Olivarez v. T-Mobile USA, Inc., 997 F.3d 595, 600 (5th Cir. 2021); cf. Comcast Corp. v. Nat’l
Ass’n of Afr. Am.-Owned Media, 140 S. Ct. 1009, 1019 (2020) (“For its part, McDonnell
Douglas sought only to supply a tool for assessing claims, typically at summary judgment,
when the plaintiff relies on indirect proof of discrimination.”).
46
Thompson, 764 F.3d at 508 (Smith, J., dissenting) (quoting 42 U.S.C. § 2000e-
2(a)(1)); Stone v. La. Dep’t of Revenue, 590 F. App’x 332, 339 (5th Cir. 2014) (per curiam)
(“We use the shorthand term ‘adverse employment action’ to refer to an employment
decision that negatively affects the compensation, terms, conditions, or privileges of
employment.”).
12
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or privileges” of his or her employment. 47 Here, of course, the Officers allege
discrimination in the catchall category: the “terms, conditions, or privileges
of employment.” 48
Before applying the law to the Officers’ allegations, we are mindful
that the statutory phrase, “terms, conditions, or privileges of employment,”
is broad. As the Supreme Court has repeatedly stated, this language, while
contractual in nature, “is not limited to ‘economic’ or ‘tangible’
discrimination,” and “it covers more than ‘terms’ and ‘conditions’ in the
narrow contractual sense.” 49 Indeed, the Court has held that even a
discriminatory and hostile work environment—when sufficiently severe or
pervasive—can rise to the level of altering the terms, conditions, or privileges
of employment for Title VII purposes. 50 The Officers have not brought a
hostile-work-environment claim, of course, but the Court’s elucidation of the
statutory text in that context nonetheless informs our construction of the
very same text for purposes of disparate-treatment claims.
Turning to the Officers’ claims, we have little difficulty concluding
that they have plausibly alleged discrimination “with respect to [their] . . .
terms, conditions, or privileges of employment.” 51 The days and hours that
_____________________
47
42 U.S.C. § 2000e-2(a)(1); Hishon, 467 U.S. at 77 (noting that the challenged
employment action “need only be a term, condition, or privilege of employment”).
48
The Texas statute uses materially identical language. See Tex. Lab. Code
§ 21.051(1) (“terms, conditions, or privileges of employment”).
49
Faragher v. City of Boca Raton, 524 U.S. 775, 786 (1998) (internal quotation marks
omitted) (first quoting Harris v. Forklift Sys., Inc., 510 U.S. 17, 21 (1993); and then quoting
Oncale, 523 U.S. at 78).
50
Harris, 510 U.S. at 21–22; Meritor, 477 U.S. at 63–67.
51
42 U.S.C. § 2000e-2(a)(1).
13
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one works are quintessential “terms or conditions” of one’s employment. 52
Indeed, these details go to the very heart of the work-for-pay arrangement.
Additionally, the complaint’s allegations support a plausible inference that
the right to pick work shifts based on seniority is a “privilege” of employment
with the County. And “[a] benefit that is part and parcel of the employment
relationship may not be doled out in a discriminatory fashion.” 53 Here, by
switching from a seniority-based scheduling system to one based on sex, the
County plausibly denied the Officers the “privilege” of seniority because of
their sex.
The Sixth Circuit recently reached the same conclusion in a strikingly
similar case. In Threat v. City of Cleveland, the plaintiffs alleged that their
employer had assigned night and day shifts based on race, even though the
employer had previously used a seniority-based scheduling system. 54 Noting
that it was a rather “straightforward” application of the English language,
the Sixth Circuit held that “[a] shift schedule is a term of employment.” 55 It
further held that “[b]enefits that come with seniority may count as privileges
of employment. And losing out on a preferred shift may diminish benefits
that a senior employee has earned.” 56 “It’s not even clear that we need
dictionaries to confirm what fluent speakers of English know.” 57 We agree
with that court’s reasoning. Here, as in Threat, switching from a seniority-
_____________________
52
See Hishon, 467 U.S. at 75–76 & 76 n.8 (noting that “wages” and “hours” come
within the statutory phrase, “terms and conditions of employment,” under a directly
analogous statute (citing Allied Chem. & Alkali Workers, 404 U.S. 157)).
53
Id. at 75.
54
6 F.4th 672, 676 (6th Cir. 2021).
55
Id. at 677 (“How could the when of employment not be a term of employment?”).
56
Id.
57
Id.
14
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based system to a sex-based system discriminates against employees in the
“terms, conditions, or privileges of employment.” 58 It’s that simple. At the
pleading stage, these allegations are sufficient to state a claim under Title VII.
The County’s contrary position is that “a shift change, without more,
is not an adverse employment action.” The County says that we should
ignore Title VII’s text by limiting liability for disparate treatment to cases in
which the employer’s actions “directly cause, or are likely to cause in the
future, loss of or reduced employment compensation.” Such a standard, they
contend, is objective, judicially administrable, and necessary to hold back
what (they say) would otherwise be a flood of Title VII litigation over run-of-
the-mill workplace squabbles.
But even putting aside the fact that Title VII’s text, on its face, is not
limited to economically adverse employment actions, we cannot construe the
statute in this manner. For one, the Supreme Court has repeatedly stated that
Section 703(a)’s text “is not limited to ‘economic’ or ‘tangible’
discrimination.” 59 For another, to limit Title VII liability to cases in which
the employer’s discrimination impacted an employee’s compensation would
render superfluous the key phrase “terms, conditions, or privileges,” as the
very same section already prohibits discrimination “with respect to [an
employee’s] compensation.” 60 Clearly, then, such a crabbed reading of the
statute cannot be right. 61
As a fallback position, the County suggests that we should require a
plaintiff to show—in addition to discrimination with respect to the “terms,
_____________________
58
42 U.S.C. § 2000e-2(a)(1).
59
Faragher, 524 U.S. at 786 (quoting Harris, 510 U.S. at 21).
60
42 U.S.C. § 2000e-2(a)(1).
61
See Duncan, 533 U.S. at 174.
15
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conditions, or privileges of employment”—a “materially adverse
employment action,” a “tangible employment action,” or an “objective
material harm requirement.” At the very least, it contends, Title VII liability
does not extend to “de minimis” discrimination. Indeed, most of the
County’s briefing is devoted to rebutting the Officers’ position, which is that
Title VII “establishes no minimum level of actionable harm.” There is some
merit to the County’s position, as nearly every circuit court seems to have
adopted one of these limitations. 62 And we readily acknowledge that the
Supreme Court has cautioned federal courts not to “transform Title VII into
a general civility code for the American workplace.” 63 Title VII accordingly
does not permit liability for de minimis workplace trifles. 64
_____________________
62
See, e.g., Morales-Vallellanes v. Potter, 605 F.3d 27, 35 (1st Cir. 2010) (“materially
adverse change in the terms and conditions of employment”); Williams v. R.H. Donnelley,
Corp., 368 F.3d 123, 128 (2d Cir. 2004) (“materially adverse”); Storey v. Burns Int’l Sec.
Servs., 390 F.3d 760, 764 (3d Cir. 2004) (“serious and tangible enough” (internal quotation
marks and citation omitted)); James v. Booz-Allen & Hamilton, Inc., 368 F.3d 371, 376 (4th
Cir. 2004) (“significant detrimental effect” (internal quotation marks and citation
omitted)); McCoy, 492 F.3d at 559 (5th Cir. 2007) (“ultimate employment decisions”);
Threat, 6 F.4th at 679 (6th Cir. 2021) (excluding “de minimis” employment actions);
Herrnreiter v. Chicago Hous. Auth., 315 F.3d 742, 744 (7th Cir. 2002) (“materially adverse
employment action” (internal quotation marks omitted)); Cooney v. Union Pac. R.R. Co.,
258 F.3d 731, 734 (8th Cir. 2001) (“tangible change in working conditions that produces a
material employment disadvantage” (internal quotation marks and citation omitted));
Chuang v. Univ. of California Davis, Bd. of Trs., 225 F.3d 1115, 1126 (9th Cir. 2000)
(“materially affect the compensation, terms, conditions, or privileges of . . .
employment”); Hiatt v. Colo. Seminary, 858 F.3d 1307, 1316 (10th Cir. 2017) (“significant
change in employment status” (internal quotation marks and citation omitted)); Davis v.
Town of Lake Park, 245 F.3d 1232, 1239 (11th Cir. 2001) (“serious and material,” “tangible
adverse effect on the plaintiff’s employment” (emphasis omitted)); Brown v. Brody, 199
F.3d 446, 457 (D.C. Cir. 1999) (“objectively tangible harm”), overruled by Chambers v.
District of Columbia, 35 F.4th 870, 882 (D.C. Cir. 2021) (en banc).
63
Oncale, 523 U.S. at 80.
64
Threat, 6 F.4th at 678 (“[O]ur approach honors a de minimis exception that
forms the backdrop of all laws.”); Chambers, 35 F.4th at 883 (Walker, J., concurring in the
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But whatever standard we might apply, it is eminently clear that the
Officers’ allegations would satisfy it at the pleading stage. In light of the
allegation that full weekends off is a preferred shift for both men and women,
it is plausible that requiring female officers to work weekends but not male
officers is a “tangible,” “objective,” and “material” instance of sex
discrimination in the terms, conditions, or privileges of employment—and
far more than “de minimis.” 65 So, too, is denying seniority privileges to
female officers while allowing male officers to exercise theirs. We thus leave
for another day the precise level of minimum workplace harm a plaintiff must
_____________________
judgment in part and dissenting in part) (“[N]othing indicates that Congress intended to
displace the de minimis principle in Title VII’s antidiscrimination provision.”); id. at 890
(Katsas, J., dissenting) (“As the Supreme Court has explained, the venerable maxim de
minimis non curat lex (‘the law cares not for trifles’) is part of the established background of
legal principles against which all enactments are adopted, and which all enactments (absent
contrary indication) are deemed to accept. Nothing in Title VII abrogates this background
principle.” (internal quotation marks and citation omitted)); Washington v. Ill. Dep’t of
Revenue, 420 F.3d 658, 660 (7th Cir. 2005) (“Courts have resisted the idea that federal law
regulates matters of attitude or other small affairs of daily life” in large part “because of
the maxim de minimis non curat lex[.]”).
While the circuit courts vary in how they articulate their preferred materiality
standard, see supra note 62, all circuits agree that, at the very least, Title VII does not permit
liability for petty trivialities or insubstantial annoyances. Future cases in our circuit will
need to determine the floor that Title VII’s anti-discrimination provision sets for actionable
harm. But that question—whether “material” and “more than de minimis” are simply two
sides of the same coin, or whether there is more room between those terms—is a question
for another day. Cf. Groff, 143 S. Ct. at 2294 (“We hold that showing ‘more than
a de minimis cost,’ as that phrase is used in common parlance, does not suffice to establish
‘undue hardship’ under Title VII.”); Threat, 6 F.4th at 679 (“But de minimis means de
minimis, and shorthand characterizations of laws should not stray.”). Nothing in this
opinion or in our sister-circuit citations should be read to foreshadow our opinion on what
measure of materiality is required. And dicta on a question not answered here should not
be passed from opinion to opinion, lest the message be mangled as if in “the children’s
game of telephone.” Id. (internal quotation marks omitted).
65
See Groff, 143 S. Ct. at 2295 (noting that “de minimis” means “something that
is ‘very small or trifling’” (quoting Black’s Law Dictionary 388 (5th ed. 1979))).
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allege on top of showing discrimination in one’s “terms, conditions, or
privileges of employment.” 66
IV
To adequately plead an adverse employment action, plaintiffs need
not allege discrimination with respect to an “ultimate employment
decision.” Instead, a plaintiff need only show that she was discriminated
against, because of a protected characteristic, with respect to hiring, firing,
compensation, or the “terms, conditions, or privileges of employment”—
just as the statute says. 67 The Officers here have done so.
For these reasons, we REVERSE the district court’s judgment and
REMAND for further proceedings consistent with this opinion. 68
_____________________
66
42 U.S.C. § 2000e-2(a)(1). Further counseling against our wading into this issue
is that the Supreme Court appears poised to address it, as the Court recently granted
certiorari in Muldrow v. City of St. Louis, 30 F.4th 680 (8th Cir. 2022), cert. granted in part,
143 S. Ct. 2686, 2023 WL 4278441 (U.S. June 30, 2023) (No. 22-193).
67
42 U.S.C. § 2000e-2(a)(1); Tex. Lab. Code § 21.051(1).
68
The parties did not separately discuss the Officers’ state-law claim and agree that
the state-law claim should be treated the same as the federal Title VII claim. For the sake
of clarity, because we vacate and remand the Title VII claim, we REVERSE and
REMAND the state-law claim for further proceedings as well.
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James C. Ho, Circuit Judge, concurring:
Our longstanding circuit precedent limits employment discrimination
claims under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to only those employer
actions that constitute “ultimate employment decisions,” such as “hiring,
granting leave, discharging, promoting, and compensating.” Dollis v. Rubin,
77 F.3d 777, 781–82 (5th Cir. 1995).
But that’s not what the text says. Title VII sweeps more broadly. It
prohibits discrimination not only in hiring, firing, and compensation, but also
with respect to the “terms, conditions, or privileges of employment.” 42
U.S.C. § 2000e–2(a)(1).
So the majority today overturns circuit precedent and restores the
text. I concur.
I write separately to respond to our distinguished colleagues who
concur only in the judgment. Our colleagues criticize the majority for
overturning precedent while “refus[ing]” to answer certain questions. Post,
at 26. They say that “leaving [those unanswered questions] for another day”
may even offend “[o]rdinary concepts of due process.” Id. at 26–27.
***
When longstanding precedent conflicts with plain text, we have to
decide what’s more important: Restoring the text? Or resolving every
unanswered question that restoring the text might present, before we do so?
It’s a choice we must make, because overturning atextual precedent
can raise a number of unanswered questions. But the existence of
unanswered questions should not stop us from restoring text and overturning
precedent. Rather, we should “decide every case faithful to the text . . . to
the maximum extent permitted by a faithful reading of binding precedent.”
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Texas v. Rettig, 993 F.3d 408, 409 (5th Cir. 2021) (Ho, J., dissenting from
denial of rehearing en banc).
Justice Thomas has written that, “[w]hen faced with a demonstrably
erroneous precedent, my rule is simple: We should not follow it.” Gamble
v. United States, 139 S. Ct. 1960, 1984 (2019) (Thomas, J., concurring). And
that’s why we granted rehearing en banc in this case—because only the en
banc court has the authority to overturn erroneous circuit precedent.
I.
This debate reminds me of the dueling opinions over unanswered
questions in Fulton v. City of Philadelphia, 141 S. Ct. 1868 (2021). Members
of the Court there sharply disagreed over whether to restore the text of the
Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment by overturning Employment
Division v. Smith, 494 U.S. 872 (1990).
Justice Barrett acknowledged that the arguments against Smith are
“compelling.” 141 S. Ct. at 1882 (Barrett, J., concurring). “As a matter of
text and structure, it is difficult to see why the Free Exercise Clause—lone
among the First Amendment freedoms—offers nothing more than
protection from discrimination.” Id.
But she declined to overturn Smith because she was concerned about
the unanswered questions that overturning Smith would raise. “Yet what
should replace Smith?” Id. “There would be a number of issues to work
through if Smith were overruled.” Id. at 1883. She set forth a series of
questions that the Court would inevitably have to “wrestle with” in future
cases if Smith were overturned. Id. (collecting unanswered questions).
Justice Gorsuch responded to Justice Barrett’s concerns about
unanswered questions. He noted that “not a single Justice has lifted a pen to
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defend the decision” in Smith. Id. at 1931 (Gorsuch, J., concurring in the
judgment). “So what are we waiting for?” Id.
“We hardly need to ‘wrestle’ today with every conceivable question
that might follow from recognizing Smith was wrong.” Id. “To be sure, any
time this Court turns from misguided precedent back toward the
Constitution’s original public meaning, challenging questions may arise
across a large field of cases and controversies. But that’s no excuse for
refusing to apply the original public meaning in the dispute actually before
us.” Id. “Rather than adhere to Smith until we settle on some ‘grand unified
theory’ of the Free Exercise Clause for all future cases until the end of time,
the Court should overrule it now, set us back on the correct course, and
address each case as it comes.” Id. (citation omitted).
II.
Fidelity to text will sometimes require overturning atextual precedent.
And overturning atextual precedent will sometimes result in unanswered
questions that courts may need to address in future cases. But that’s what
courts are for. It’s not a reason to ignore text.
Just look at how the Supreme Court ruled in its two most recent
decisions involving the 1964 Civil Rights Act, decided on the same day at the
close of its most recent Term.
In Groff v. DeJoy, _ U.S. _ (2023), and Students for Fair Admissions,
Inc. v. President and Fellows of Harvard College, _ U.S. _ (2023), the Court
favored text over longstanding atextual precedent. And it did so knowing full
well that both decisions leave unanswered a whole range of questions that
courts will now have to confront in future cases.
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A.
Let’s start with Groff. Title VII not only forbids employers from
discriminating against people of faith—it affirmatively requires employers to
accommodate their religious practices, unless doing so would impose an
“undue hardship on the conduct of the employer’s business.” 42 U.S.C. §
2000e(j). Decades ago, however, the Court concluded that requiring an
employer to “bear more than a de minimis cost . . . is an undue hardship.”
Trans World Airlines, Inc. v. Hardison, 432 U.S. 63, 84 (1977).
In Groff, the Court did away with the “de minimis” gloss in
Hardison—much like how our circuit today does away with our “ultimate
employment decision” gloss in Dollis.
Notably, the Court abandoned the “de minimis” standard even
though that will inevitably lead to a number of unanswered questions. After
all, if we’re no longer following the de minimis standard, then courts will now
have to decide how much hardship is “undue” for the employer’s business—
a question that will have to be resolved in virtually every case imaginable
involving a request for a religious accommodation. See, e.g., George
Weykamp, Religious Objections Over Pronouns Test High Court’s New Stance,
Bloomberg, Aug. 9, 2023.
The Court was well aware of this and restored the text anyway. In
fact, it acknowledged that unanswered questions will be presented, not only
in other cases in the wake of Groff, but in Groff itself: “Having clarified the
Title VII undue-hardship standard, we think it appropriate to leave the
context-specific application of that clarified standard to the lower courts in
the first instance. . . . [W]e think it appropriate to leave it to the lower courts
to apply our clarified context-specific standard, and to decide whether any
further factual development is needed.” _ U.S. at _.
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Justice Gorsuch summed it up this way during oral argument: It
would be “a good day’s work” “simply to say” that “this de minimis
language” is “not the law,” “put a period at the end of it,” and leave future
questions for future cases. Tr. of Oral Arg. 64–65.
B.
The same is true in Students for Fair Admissions. Title VI states that
“[n]o person in the United States shall, on the ground of race, color, or
national origin, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of,
or be subjected to discrimination under any program or activity receiving
Federal financial assistance.” 42 U.S.C. § 2000d. For decades, however,
the Supreme Court has allowed colleges and universities to consider race in
deciding which students to admit—and which students to deny. See, e.g.,
Grutter v. Bollinger, 539 U.S. 306 (2003).
In Students for Fair Admissions, the Court restored the plain text of
Title VI and prohibited colleges and universities from discriminating on the
basis of race.
Once again, the Court restored text despite the heated debates over
alternative admissions policies that would predicably erupt as a result.
For example, university leaders have already suggested that they may
use admissions essays to achieve the preferred racial outcomes they
previously attained through race-conscious admissions. See, e.g., Steven
McGuire, Can Harvard Use Application Essays to Discriminate by Race?,
Wall St. J., Aug. 11, 2023. The validity of such efforts will require courts
to answer a number of legal questions. To take just one: University leaders
justify these efforts by claiming an interest in diversity. So courts will have
to decide whether that interest is sincere or pretextual, in light of other
dynamics such as ideological conformity on campus, homogeneity in faculty
and administration hiring, and student disruptions of disfavored viewpoints.
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Courts will have to decide whether schools can justify their DEI efforts if
their vision of diversity doesn’t include diverse viewpoints, if equity doesn’t
encompass equality for people of faith, and if inclusion involves excluding
politically unpopular beliefs. For schools that tolerate (if not practice)
ideological discrimination, courts will have to determine whether diversity is
nothing more than a pretext for race.
Yet none of this stopped the Court from restoring the plain text of
Title VI in Students for Fair Admissions.
And so too here. Our beloved colleagues are no doubt correct that our
majority opinion today will lead to unanswered questions and future cases.
But that is no reason to favor atextual precedent over text, just as it wasn’t in
Groff and in Students for Fair Admissions.
III.
Congress enacted the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to protect every
American against every form of prohibited discrimination—not just certain
favored classes against certain disfavored forms of discrimination. For
decades, however, the judiciary has distorted the Act in various ways to
protect some Americans, while excluding others.
Today’s decision is just the latest in a series of recent rulings designed
to restore the full meaning of the Civil Rights Act for the benefit of all
Americans. Groff restores Title VII for people of faith. Students for Fair
Admissions restores Title VI for Asian American students. And our decision
today will help restore federal civil rights protections for anyone harmed by
divisive workplace policies that allocate professional opportunities to
employees based on their sex or skin color, under the guise of furthering
diversity, equity, and inclusion.
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As the Civil Rights Division of the Justice Department noted during
en banc oral argument in this case, if “a law firm is having a lunch to do CLEs
and you have a policy that says we’re only going to invite women but not men
to this CLE lunch, that’s of course actionable, and that’s of course a term,
condition, or privilege of employment” under Title VII. Audio of Oral Arg.
23:00–23:29. The Justice Department agreed that “a lot of law firms do
that.” Id. at 25:35. It also noted that “work assignments . . . happening on
the basis of race” are likewise actionable under Title VII. Id. at 27:12–20.
The Justice Department is not alone in expressing these concerns.
See, e.g., Andrea R. Lucas, With Supreme Court affirmative action ruling, it’s
time for companies to take a hard look at their corporate diversity programs,
Reuters, June 29, 2023 (“Title VII bars . . . a host of increasingly popular
race-conscious corporate initiatives: from providing race-restricted access to
mentoring, sponsorship, or training programs; to selecting interviewees
partially due to diverse candidate slate policies; to tying executive or
employee compensation to the company achieving certain demographic
targets; to offering race-restricted diversity internship programs or
accelerated interview processes, sometimes paired with euphemistic
diversity ‘scholarships’ that effectively provide more compensation for
‘diverse’ summer interns.”); U.S. Senator Tom Cotton, Cotton Warns Top
Law Firms About Race-Based Hiring Practices, July 17, 2023.
***
“Equality of opportunity is fundamental to who we are, and to who
we aspire to be, as a nation.” Lindsley v. TRT Holdings, Inc., 984 F.3d 460,
464 (5th Cir. 2021). Today’s decision will help bring us closer to achieving
those aspirations. I concur.
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Edith H. Jones, Circuit Judge, joined by Smith and Oldham, Circuit
Judges, concurring in the judgment only:
I concur in the result reached by the majority, a remand for further
development in this decidedly unusual case. After all, the plaintiffs’ pleading
is that the Dallas County Sheriff’s Department changed the weekend shift
pattern from seniority-based to specifically gender-based, to the alleged
detriment of the female staff. Rarely in recent years have we seen such an
admission. In my view, our governing precedents sufficed to countenance
remand and further development. See Thompson v. City of Waco, 764 F.3d
500, 505-06 (5th Cir. 2014) (any employment decision causing such
“significant and material” harm that it makes the employee’s job
“objectively worse” is ultimate because it is the “equivalent of a
demotion”); see also Sharp v. City of Houston, 164 F.3d 923, 933 (5th Cir.
1999). But this does not satisfy the present-minded majority, who decry and
apparently annul our “atextual” thirty-year string of precedents. 69 The
question left hanging by the majority is what kind of “term or condition” of
employment creates an actionable Title VII discrimination claim. The
majority refuses to say, leaving “for another day the precise level of minimum
workplace harm a plaintiff must allege on top of showing discrimination in
one’s ‘terms, conditions, or privileges of employment.’”
The majority’s incomplete ruling fails for two reasons. First, it leaves
the bench, bar, and employers and employees with no clue as to what this
court will finally declare to be the minimum standard for Title VII
liability. The majority holding amounts to this: we hold that speeding is
illegal, but we will not say now what speed is illegal under what
_____________________
69
As the majority catalogues in its Footnote 62, nearly every circuit has similar,
long-standing precedent imposing minimum standards for liability under Title VII.
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circumstances. Ordinary concepts of due process should have required
notice to the public regarding this vital and pervasive workplace law. The
omission is doubly troubling, because even as this court dithers, the Supreme
Court is poised to resolve the circuit split in a case not dissimilar from this
one. See Muldrow v. City of St. Louis Missouri, No. 22-193, 2023 WL 4278441,
at *1 (U.S. June 30, 2023) (cert. granted to decide if Title VII prohibits
“discrimination in transfer decisions absent a separate court determination
that the transfer decision caused a significant disadvantage”). 70 If panels of
this court begin to populate the new “textual” Title VII holding with caselaw
about materiality or de minimis discrimination, they are all subject to revision
no later than June 2024, and this circuit will be back in a position of
uncertainty, pending even further developments. This is not judicial
prudence, it is judicial abdication. Prudence would have counselled that we
continue to enforce our governing precedents until they are refined by the
Supreme Court.
Second, I disagree with the majority’s claim to a “textual” reading of
Title VII that purports to eschew materiality as a necessary basis of employer
liability. Since what we write today is eminently and imminently contingent,
this will be brief. In the most recent case to thoroughly explore the statutory
basis for Title VII employment discrimination cases, Judge Katsas’s dissent
offered a wholly convincing “textualist” explanation as to why actionable
_____________________
70
In that case, the plaintiff alleged that she had been transferred from one division
of the St. Louis Police Department to another. The court declined to find a Title VII
violation, reasoning that her new position “did not result in a diminution to her title, salary,
or benefits” or result in “a significant change in working conditions or responsibilities.”
Muldrow v. City of St. Louis Missouri, 30 F.4th 680, 688-89 (8th Cir. 2022). Because “a
mere preference for one position over the other” was insufficient to meet the circuit’s
“adverse employment action” standard, the Eighth Circuit affirmed a grant of summary
judgment to the city. Id. at 689. To decide Muldrow, therefore, the Supreme Court must
say something about what kind of injury suffices to support a Title VII claim.
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discrimination must entail a “materially adverse” change in work conditions
when viewed “objectively” by a reasonable observer. Chambers v. D.C.,
35 F.4th 870, 886 (D.C. Cir. 2022) (Katsas, J., dissenting). 71 First,
Section 703(a)(1)’s use of the phrase “discriminate against” means that the
plaintiff must have suffered an injury of some kind. 72 Id. at 889-90. Second,
the law’s general background presumption against recovery for de minimis
injuries is not abrogated here. Id. at 890. Third, by the canon of ejusdem
generis, the types of discrimination specifically enumerated in Section 703—
“to fail or refuse to hire or to discharge any individual”—make clear that the
actions covered by Section 703’s more general clause—“or otherwise to
discriminate”—must constitute objectively material harm. Id.
Further support for Judge Katsas’s interpretation springs from the
fact that other claims actionable under Title VII, such as hostile work
environment, retaliation, and constructive discharge claims, all require
threshold standards connoting objective, material injury. A sexual
harassment claim is not actionable unless the misconduct is “severe or
pervasive enough to create an objectively hostile or abusive work
environment.” Harris v. Forklift Sys., Inc., 510 U.S. 17, 21, 114 S. Ct. 367, 370
(1993). “To show constructive discharge, an employee must offer evidence
that the employer made the employee’s working conditions so intolerable
that a reasonable employee would feel compelled to resign.” Barrow v. New
Orleans S.S. Ass’n, 10 F.3d 292, 297 (5th Cir. 1994). Most recently, the
Supreme Court embraced an interpretation of Title VII retaliation in
_____________________
71
This court’s majority, curiously, fails to mention the erudite clash of views
espoused on these questions in the D.C. Circuit’s debate.
72
See also Bostock v. Clayton Cnty., Georgia, 140 S. Ct. 1731, 1740 (2020) (“To
discriminate against a person . . . would seem to mean treating that individual worse than
others who are similarly situated.”) (quotation marks omitted).
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Section 704(a), 42 U.S.C. § 2000e-3(a), that includes conduct outside the
workplace. Burlington N. & Santa Fe Ry. Co. v. White, 548 U.S. 53, 63,
126 S. Ct. 2405, 2412 (2006). But at the same time, the Court emphasized
that an objective standard is required because the term “discriminate
against” in Section 704(a) protects “an individual, not from all retaliation,
but from retaliation that produces an injury or harm.” Id. at 67,
2414. Further, “the provision’s standard for judging harm must be
objective.” Id. at 68, 2415. The Supreme Court’s interpretation of
“discriminate against” in this companion antiretaliation provision must,
under the presumption of consistent usage 73 apply to the same language in
Section 703(a)(1). Chambers, 35 F.4th at 891–92. This point of textualism
the majority also overlooked.
Finally, as the majority recognizes, the Supreme Court emphasizes
that Title VII does not effectuate a workplace “general civility code.” Oncale
v. Sundowner Offshore Servs., Inc., 523 U.S. 75, 81, 118 S. Ct. 998, 1002
(1998). Yet as written, the majority opinion has no baseline for
“discrimination” based on terms or conditions of employment. 74 Take one
example. In a hypothetical workplace, only one supervisor is permitted to
work remotely from out-of-state because of a spouse’s relocation. If that
supervisor is male, or white, or Christian, does this mean that any female,
black, or Muslim supervisor is “discriminated against” if denied the same
_____________________
73
See ANTONIN SCALIA & BRYAN A. GARNER, READING LAW: THE
INTERPRETATION OF LEGAL TEXTS 171–73 (2012).
74
To be sure, the majority dance around holding that de minimis injuries are not
actionable, and it refuses to state whether a materiality standard may be invoked in
subsequent cases. Technically, of course, neither adumbration to Section 703(a)(1) is
“textual” in the majority’s literalistic sense. Moreover, as Judge Katsas explained, even
while the majority’s decision (in Chambers as in this case) claims to be fact-specific, and
“reserves the possibility that Title VII may not extend to de minimis injuries,” “the
decision cannot be fairly confined….” 35 F.4th at 887.
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remote work opportunity? Another example: employer allows extended
lunch period when a male employee says he’s going to barbershop, but denies
the request for a female. Are these cases actionable next week under the
majority’s reasoning?
Let us see what the Supreme Court does with Muldrow before we
render any workplace “difference” an equivalent, for filing suit at least,
of “discrimination.”
I concur in the judgment only.
30