Oscar Chavez Solis v. Loretta E. Lynch , 803 F.3d 1004 ( 2015 )


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  •                FOR PUBLICATION
    UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS
    FOR THE NINTH CIRCUIT
    OSCAR CHAVEZ-SOLIS,                      No. 11-73958
    Petitioner,
    Agency No.
    v.                      A073-850-909
    LORETTA E. LYNCH, Attorney
    General,                                  OPINION
    Respondent.
    On Petition for Review of an Order of the
    Board of Immigration Appeals
    Argued and Submitted
    June 4, 2015—Pasadena, California
    Filed October 6, 2015
    Before: Raymond C. Fisher, Jay S. Bybee,
    and Carlos T. Bea, Circuit Judges.
    Opinion by Judge Bybee
    2                   CHAVEZ-SOLIS V. LYNCH
    SUMMARY*
    Immigration
    The panel granted Oscar Chavez-Solis’s petition for
    review of the Board of Immigration Appeals’ decision
    holding that his conviction for possessing child pornography
    under California Penal Code § 311.11(a) is an aggravated
    felony under 8 U.S.C. § 1101(a)(43)(I).
    The panel held that CPC § 311.11(a) is not an aggravated
    felony because it is categorically broader than any offense
    described in the federal child pornography statute. The panel
    also held that the modified categorical approach could not be
    applied because the definition of “sexual conduct” in CPC
    § 311.4(d) is indivisible.
    COUNSEL
    Douglas Jalaie (argued), Los Angeles, California, for
    Petitioner.
    Stuart F. Delery, Principal Deputy Assistant Attorney
    General; Jennifer Lightbody, Senior Litigation Counsel;
    Ashley Y. Martin (argued), Attorney, Office of Immigration
    Litigation, United States Department of Justice, Washington,
    D.C., for Respondent.
    *
    This summary constitutes no part of the opinion of the court. It has
    been prepared by court staff for the convenience of the reader.
    CHAVEZ-SOLIS V. LYNCH                      3
    OPINION
    BYBEE, Circuit Judge:
    We are asked to decide whether a conviction for
    possessing child pornography in violation of California Penal
    Code § 311.11(a) is an aggravated felony under 8 U.S.C.
    § 1101(a)(43)(I). We conclude that § 311.11(a) sweeps in a
    broader range of pornographic depictions than the federal
    child pornography statute and thus is not an aggravated
    felony. Accordingly, we grant the petition for review.
    I
    Oscar Chavez-Solis is a native and citizen of Mexico who
    was admitted to the United States as a lawful permanent
    resident in 1999. In 2011, he pleaded nolo contendere to
    possessing or controlling child pornography in violation of
    California Penal Code § 311.11(a). He was sentenced to 150
    days’ imprisonment.
    Two months later, the Department of Homeland Security
    (DHS) took Chavez-Solis into custody and placed him in
    removal proceedings. The Notice to Appear charged Chavez-
    Solis with removability under 8 U.S.C. § 1227(a)(2)(A)(iii)
    as an alien “convicted of an aggravated felony as defined in
    [8 U.S.C. § 1101(a)(43)(I)].” Section 1101(a)(43)(I) defines
    the term “aggravated felony” to include “an offense described
    in [18 U.S.C. §§] 2251, 2251A, or 2252 . . . (relating to child
    pornography).”
    In proceedings before the Immigration Judge, DHS took
    the position that Penal Code § 311.11(a) is an aggravated
    felony under 8 U.S.C. § 1101(a)(43)(I) because it is described
    4                 CHAVEZ-SOLIS V. LYNCH
    in both 18 U.S.C. § 2252(a)(2) (receipt of child pornography)
    and § 2252(a)(4)(B) (possession of child pornography).
    Chavez-Solis disagreed. Pointing to the California Court of
    Appeal’s decision in Tecklenburg v. Appellate Division of the
    Superior Court, 
    87 Cal. Rptr. 3d 460
    , 472–73 (Ct. App.
    2009), he argued that, unlike federal courts applying the
    federal statute, California courts have held that a defendant
    who accesses child pornography on the Internet can be
    convicted under § 311.11(a) for possessing images found in
    his computer’s temporary cache even if he is unaware of the
    cache.
    In an oral decision, the Immigration Judge determined
    that Chavez-Solis’s § 311.11(a) conviction constituted an
    aggravated felony under 8 U.S.C. § 1101(a)(43)(I). The
    Immigration Judge compared the statutes and reasoned that
    “[t]he essential elements of California Penal Code Section
    311.11[(a)], as well as those under 2252(a)(4)(B) are
    essentially the same.” Acknowledging that Tecklenburg
    construed § 311.11(a) broadly, the Immigration Judge
    responded, “That is exactly the point. . . . [B]oth [state and
    federal] statues [sic] are so broad they are virtually identical
    . . . .” The Immigration Judge concluded that Chavez-Solis
    was ineligible for adjustment of status, cancellation of
    removal, and voluntary departure, and ordered him removed
    to Mexico.
    Chavez-Solis appealed to the Board of Immigration
    Appeals. Reviewing de novo, the Board concluded that
    “[t]he offense defined by section 311.11(a) . . . is ‘described
    in’ 18 U.S.C. § 2252 because the essential elements of the
    California offense are the same as those described by
    18 U.S.C. §§ 2252(a)(2) and (a)(4)(B).” As for the
    Tecklenburg decision, the Board reasoned that the defendant
    CHAVEZ-SOLIS V. LYNCH                     5
    in Tecklenburg did “knowingly possess or control images of
    child pornography,” and thus could have been convicted
    under 18 U.S.C. § 2252. The Board thus agreed with the
    Immigration Judge that a violation of Penal Code § 311.11(a)
    is an offense described in 18 U.S.C. § 2252 and accordingly
    dismissed the appeal.
    Chavez-Solis filed a timely petition for review with this
    court. We have jurisdiction to review questions of law
    decided by the Board of Immigration Appeals, 8 U.S.C.
    § 1252(a)(1), (a)(2)(D), and “[w]hether an offense is an
    aggravated felony for removal purposes is a question of law”
    that we review de novo, Chuen Piu Kwong v. Holder,
    
    671 F.3d 872
    , 876 (9th Cir. 2011) (brackets omitted) (quoting
    Morales-Alegria v. Gonzales, 
    449 F.3d 1051
    , 1053 (9th Cir.
    2006)).
    II
    We determine whether a state law child pornography
    conviction is an aggravated felony as defined in 8 U.S.C.
    § 1101(a)(43)(I) by applying the categorical approach
    outlined in Taylor v. United States, 
    495 U.S. 575
    (1990).
    Under that approach, we “make a categorical comparison of
    the elements of the statute of conviction and the generic
    definition of an aggravated felony, as found in
    § 1101(a)(43).” Aguilar-Turcios v. Holder, 
    740 F.3d 1294
    ,
    1300 (9th Cir. 2014). Here, that means we must compare the
    elements of California Penal Code § 311.11(a) with those of
    18 U.S.C. §§ 2252(a)(2) and 2252(a)(4)(B).
    6                    CHAVEZ-SOLIS V. LYNCH
    A
    The statute of conviction here, California Penal Code
    § 311.11(a), punishes a person who “knowingly possesses or
    controls any matter, representation of information, data, or
    image, . . . the production of which involves the use of a
    person under 18 years of age, knowing that the matter depicts
    a person under 18 years of age personally engaging in or
    simulating sexual conduct.” “Sexual conduct,” in turn, means
    “actual or simulated”
    sexual intercourse, oral copulation, anal
    intercourse, anal oral copulation,
    masturbation, bestiality, sexual sadism, sexual
    masochism, penetration of the vagina or
    rectum by any object in a lewd or lascivious
    manner, exhibition of the genitals or pubic or
    rectal area for the purpose of sexual
    stimulation of the viewer, any lewd or
    lascivious sexual act as defined in Section
    288, or excretory functions performed in a
    lewd or lascivious manner.
    
    Id. § 311.4(d)(1).
    The federal possession statute, 18 U.S.C.
    § 2252(a)(4)(B),1 punishes a person who “knowingly
    possesses, or knowingly accesses with intent to view, [any]
    matter which contain[s] any visual depiction . . . if—(i) the
    producing of such visual depiction involves the use of a
    1
    We focus our attention on 18 U.S.C. § 2252(a)(4)(B), the provision of
    the federal statute that, like Penal Code § 311.11(a), punishes simple
    possession of child pornography.
    CHAVEZ-SOLIS V. LYNCH                              7
    minor engaging in sexually explicit conduct; and (ii) such
    visual depiction is of such conduct.”2 Another section defines
    “sexually explicit conduct” as actual or simulated
    (i) sexual intercourse, including genital-
    genital, oral-genital, anal-genital, or oral-anal,
    whether between persons of the same or
    opposite sex;
    (ii) bestiality;
    (iii) masturbation;
    (iv) sadistic or masochistic abuse; or
    (v) lascivious exhibition of the genitals or
    pubic area of any person.
    18 U.S.C. § 2256(2)(A).
    The statutes overlap in many respects:
    Both statutes require knowing possession, including
    knowledge that the pornography depicts a minor engaged in
    sexual conduct. The California statute is somewhat more
    clear on its face, as it uses the word “knowingly” to qualify
    “possesses or controls” and then again uses the word
    2
    We omit the provision’s jurisdictional element (which requires that the
    visual depiction be transported in interstate or foreign commerce or
    produced using materials transported in interstate or foreign commerce)
    because a mere jurisdictional element does not render a federal statute
    narrower than a state statute for purposes of the categorical inquiry. See
    United States v. Castillo-Rivera, 
    244 F.3d 1020
    , 1024 (9th Cir. 2001).
    8                CHAVEZ-SOLIS V. LYNCH
    “knowing” with reference to the fact that an actual minor is
    depicted engaging in sexual conduct. The federal statute, by
    contrast, uses the word “knowingly” only at the beginning,
    suggesting that it might modify only the verbs it
    precedes—“possesses” and “accesses.” Nevertheless, we
    have held that § 2252(a)(4)(B)’s scienter requirement applies
    to all elements of the offense: “[T]he government must show
    that the defendant knew that . . . the materials portrayed
    sexually-explicit conduct and . . . that he knew that the
    materials depicted minors engaged in such conduct.” United
    States v. Merino-Balderrama, 
    146 F.3d 758
    , 761 (9th Cir.
    1998) (citing United States v. X-Citement Video, Inc.,
    
    513 U.S. 64
    , 78 (1994)).
    Both statutes require possession or control. Chavez-Solis
    tries to make something of the fact that the federal statute
    says only “possesses,” not “possesses or controls” as
    § 311.11(a) does. But there is no legally significant
    distinction between these terms. We have explained that a
    defendant “possesses” child pornography under the federal
    statute if he “exercise[s] dominion and control over it.”
    United States v. Romm, 
    455 F.3d 990
    , 999 (9th Cir. 2006)
    (citation, internal quotation marks, and brackets omitted).
    Both statutes require that the matter depict an actual
    minor and define “minor” as a person under the age of 18.
    Compare Cal. Penal Code § 311.11(a) (“the production of
    [the matter] involves the use of a person under 18 years of
    age . . . [and] the matter depicts a person under 18 years of
    age personally engaging in or simulating sexual conduct”)
    with 18 U.S.C. § 2252(a)(4)(B) (“the producing of such visual
    depiction involves the use of a minor engaging in sexually
    explicit conduct[] and . . . such visual depiction is of such
    CHAVEZ-SOLIS V. LYNCH                      9
    conduct”) and 
    id. § 2256(1)
    (“‘minor’ means any person
    under the age of eighteen years”).
    Finally, both statutes define sexual conduct to include
    much (but not all) of the same conduct. Both statutes
    encompass “actual” and “simulated” sexual intercourse, oral
    sex, anal sex, masturbation, bestiality, sexual sadism, sexual
    masochism, and lascivious exhibition of the genitals or pubic
    area. Compare Cal. Penal Code § 311.4(d)(1) (defining
    “sexual conduct”) with 18 U.S.C. § 2256(2)(A) (defining
    “sexually explicit conduct”).
    We have previously determined that “the essential
    elements of [Penal Code] section 311.11 and those of
    18 U.S.C. § 2252(a)(4)(B) are the same” and that there is no
    “meaningful distinction” between the two statutes’ definitions
    of sexual conduct. Armijo v. Mukasey, 266 F. App’x 511,
    512–13 (9th Cir. 2008). We must now reevaluate our prior
    nonprecedential conclusion in Armijo in light of new
    arguments, to which we now turn.
    B
    Chavez-Solis argues that § 311.11(a) prohibits depictions
    of a broader range of “sexual conduct” than 18 U.S.C.
    § 2252(a)(4)(B) prohibits. We conclude that § 311.11(a) is
    indeed broader in this regard. Chavez-Solis also argues that
    Penal Code § 311.11(a) has been applied more broadly than
    the federal statute in cases involving child pornography found
    in a computer’s cache. In light of our conclusion that
    § 311.11(a) is categorically broader than 18 U.S.C.
    § 2252(a)(4)(B), we decline to address this issue.
    10                    CHAVEZ-SOLIS V. LYNCH
    1
    Section 311.11(a)’s broader scope is readily apparent
    from its text. The federal definition of “sexually explicit
    conduct” includes only five types of conduct: (i) sexual
    intercourse, (ii) bestiality, (iii) masturbation, (iv) sadistic or
    masochistic abuse, and (v) lascivious exhibition of the
    genitals or pubic area. 18 U.S.C. § 2256(2)(A). California’s
    definition of “sexual conduct” includes the same five types of
    conduct: “sexual intercourse, . . . masturbation, bestiality,
    sexual sadism, sexual masochism, . . . [and] exhibition of the
    genitals or pubic or rectal area for the purpose of sexual
    stimulation of the viewer.” Cal. Penal Code § 311.4(d)(1).
    But the California statute does not stop there.
    California’s definition of “sexual conduct,” unlike the
    federal statute, goes on to include “any lewd or lascivious
    sexual act as defined in Section 288.” Id.3 Section 288
    prohibits “any lewd or lascivious act . . . upon or with the
    body, or any part or member thereof, of a child who is under
    the age of 14 years, with the intent of arousing, appealing to,
    or gratifying the lust, passions, or sexual desires of that
    person or the child.” 
    Id. § 288(a).
    3
    California’s definition of “sexual conduct” also lists “penetration of the
    vagina or rectum by any object in a lewd or lascivious manner” and
    “excretory functions performed in a lewd or lascivious manner.” Cal.
    Penal Code § 311.4(d)(1). Although these provisions have no explicit
    analogue in the federal statute, both provisions may always involve
    “lascivious exhibition of the genitals or pubic area” as that term is used in
    the federal statute. We therefore focus on the definition’s “lewd or
    lascivious sexual act” provision, which, as the text of § 288 makes clear,
    does not always involve exhibition of the genitals or pubic area.
    CHAVEZ-SOLIS V. LYNCH                    11
    Section 288 is quite broad. As the California Supreme
    Court has explained, “[n]othing in [§ 288] restricts the
    manner in which [the prohibited] contact can occur or
    requires that specific or intimate body parts be touched.”
    People v. Martinez, 
    903 P.2d 1037
    , 1041 (Cal. 1995). “[A]ny
    touching of an underage child is ‘lewd or lascivious’ within
    the meaning of section 288 where it is committed for the
    purpose of sexual arousal.” 
    Id. at 1042.
    And, as the language
    of § 288 expressly states, “a touching of ‘any part’ of the
    victim’s body is . . . prohibited.” 
    Id. at 1041
    (quoting Cal.
    Penal Code § 288(a)).
    Taken at face value, California’s definition of “sexual
    conduct” must be quite broad too, as it explicitly
    encompasses the full range of conduct proscribed by § 288.
    See Cal. Penal Code § 311.4(d)(1) (definition of “sexual
    conduct” includes “any lewd or lascivious sexual act as
    defined in Section 288” (emphasis added)); see also People
    v. Wallace, 
    14 Cal. Rptr. 2d 67
    , 75 (Ct. App. 1992) (“Since
    sections 288 and 311.4 cover the same subject matter, we
    should construe them together so as to harmonize them, and
    if possible, maintain the integrity of both statutes.”),
    overruled on other grounds by 
    Martinez, 903 P.2d at 1048
    .
    No provision of the federal statute’s definition of
    “sexually explicit conduct” can be read to encompass “any
    touching” on “any part” of a child’s body with the intent of
    arousing sexual desires. California’s child pornography
    statute thus sweeps in depictions of a broader range of
    “sexual conduct” than the federal child pornography statute
    encompasses. On this basis, Penal Code § 311.11(a) is
    categorically overinclusive.
    12                CHAVEZ-SOLIS V. LYNCH
    2
    The government argues that Chavez-Solis has failed to
    show a “realistic probability,” Gonzales v. Duenas-Alvarez,
    
    549 U.S. 183
    , 193 (2007), that a defendant would ever be
    convicted under § 311.11(a) for possessing a depiction of a
    lewd or lascivious sexual act as defined in § 288. We
    disagree.
    In Duenas-Alvarez, the Supreme Court clarified how
    courts should apply the categorical inquiry:
    [T]o find that a state statute creates a crime
    outside the generic definition of a listed crime
    in a federal statute requires more than the
    application of legal imagination to a state
    statute’s language. It requires a realistic
    probability, not a theoretical possibility, that
    the State would apply its statute to conduct
    that falls outside the generic definition of a
    crime.
    
    Id. at 193.
    One way a petitioner can show the requisite
    “realistic probability” of prosecution for conduct that falls
    outside the generic definition is to “point to his own case or
    other cases in which the state courts in fact did apply the
    statute in the special (nongeneric) manner for which he
    argues.” 
    Id. But that
    is not the only way. We have explained that if “a
    state statute explicitly defines a crime more broadly than the
    generic definition, no ‘legal imagination’ is required to hold
    that a realistic probability exists that the state will apply its
    statute to conduct that falls outside the generic definition of
    CHAVEZ-SOLIS V. LYNCH                     13
    the crime.” United States v. Grisel, 
    488 F.3d 844
    , 850 (9th
    Cir. 2007) (en banc) (citation omitted); see also United States
    v. Vidal, 
    504 F.3d 1072
    , 1082 (9th Cir. 2007) (en banc).
    Accordingly, when a “state statute’s greater breadth is evident
    from its text,” a petitioner need not point to an actual case
    applying the statute of conviction in a nongeneric manner.
    
    Grisel, 488 F.3d at 850
    . The petitioner may simply “rely on
    the statutory language to establish the statute as overly
    inclusive.” 
    Vidal, 504 F.3d at 1082
    .
    The statute of conviction here explicitly prohibits
    possessing depictions of a minor “engaging in or simulating
    sexual conduct, as defined in subdivision (d) of Section
    311.4.” Cal. Penal Code § 311.11(a). And § 311.4(d)
    explicitly includes conduct—“any lewd or lascivious sexual
    act as defined in Section 288”—that is neither included in nor
    fairly encompassed by the federal definition of “sexually
    explicit conduct.” Under Grisel and Vidal, there is thus a
    “realistic probability” that California will apply § 311.11(a)
    to depictions that are not covered by the federal child
    pornography statute. Chavez-Solis has no need to point to
    any actual prosecution.
    In any event, People v. Wallace, shows a reasonable
    probability of prosecution under § 311.4(d)’s “lewd or
    lascivious sexual act” prong. 
    See 14 Cal. Rptr. 2d at 71
    .
    Wallace involved a prosecution for, among other crimes, the
    offense of using a minor to produce a film depicting sexual
    conduct in violation of Penal Code § 311.4(c). Like
    § 311.11(a), § 311.4(c) incorporates the definition of “sexual
    conduct” found in § 311.4(d). The defendant, Wallace,
    videotaped two teenage girls taking off their clothes in a
    seductive manner. One of the girls, at Wallace’s urging,
    revealed her breasts to the camera, and both girls pulled their
    14                 CHAVEZ-SOLIS V. LYNCH
    bikini bottoms away from the skin to show their tanlines. 
    Id. at 69–70.
    Based on the videotapes, a jury convicted Wallace
    of violating § 311.4(c). 
    Id. at 68–69.
    Wallace argued on appeal that there was insufficient
    evidence that the videos depicted “sexual conduct” within the
    meaning of § 311.4(d). The California Court of Appeal
    disagreed. Although the court determined that “the girls did
    not actually exhibit their genital, pubic or rectal areas,” 
    id. at 76,
    “there was credible evidence from which the jury could
    draw rational inferences that [the] defendant did commit two
    or three lewd acts on the body of the victims,” 
    id. at 71.
    For
    example, the court noted, the defendant encouraged the girls
    to expose their bodies while he filmed them and, as a result
    of that encouragement, “Tina exposed her breasts and Jenny
    pulled down a portion of her underpants.” 
    Id. This constituted
    a “lewd or lascivious touching” because, as the
    court explained, “the necessary touching may be done by the
    child victim . . . on the child’s own person at the instigation
    of the defendant.” 
    Id. Although the
    evidence was sufficient to convict under
    § 311.4(d)’s “lewd or lascivious sexual act” prong, the court
    ultimately reversed the § 311.4(c) conviction because it
    concluded that the verdict was tainted by the trial court’s “any
    touching” jury instruction. See 
    id. at 76.
    In the court’s view,
    the “touching of the victims had to be lewd and lascivious,
    regardless of [the defendant’s] specific intent.” 
    Id. at 75.
    This interpretation of § 288 was later overruled by the
    California Supreme Court in People v. Martinez, which
    “adhere[d] to the long-standing rule that section 288 is
    violated by ‘any touching’ of an underage child accomplished
    with the intent of arousing the sexual desires of either the
    perpetrator or the 
    child.” 903 P.2d at 1048
    . But Martinez did
    CHAVEZ-SOLIS V. LYNCH                           15
    nothing to cast doubt on Wallace’s determination that
    sufficient evidence established that the videotapes in question
    depicted a lewd or lascivious sexual act but not a lascivious
    exhibition of the genitals or pubic area. If anything, Martinez
    clarified that Wallace’s § 311.4(c) conviction was not tainted
    by erroneous instructions and thus, in retrospect, should have
    been upheld. Wallace thus clearly shows a defendant can be
    prosecuted and convicted under California’s child
    pornography laws based on the “lewd or lascivious sexual
    act” prong of § 311.4(d)’s definition of “sexual conduct.”
    The government contends that Wallace should be
    distinguished because it involved a § 311.4(c) prosecution,
    not a § 311.11(a) prosecution, and that “state courts have
    distinguished § 311.4(c), and other offenses that target the
    actual use of minors to produce images, from the simple
    possession offense at § 311.11(a).” But the two decisions the
    government identifies—People v. Haraszewski, 137 Cal.
    Rptr. 3d 641 (Ct. App. 2012), and People v. Shields, 131 Cal.
    Rptr. 3d 82 (Ct. App. 2011)—distinguished § 311.11(a) only
    with respect to the question of how many crimes a defendant
    can be charged with having committed.4 These decisions say
    nothing about the meaning of “sexual conduct” in the statute,
    nor has the government identified any state court decision
    applying the term “sexual conduct” more narrowly in a
    possession case than in a use-of-a-minor case. On the
    4
    Compare People v. Manfredi, 
    86 Cal. Rptr. 3d 810
    , 811 (Ct. App.
    2008) (possession of multiple child pornography images chargeable as
    only one § 311.11(a) offense), with 
    Haraszewski, 137 Cal. Rptr. 3d at 656
    (Penal Code § 311.2(d), which proscribes the duplication of child
    pornography, authorizes a separate conviction for each duplication), and
    
    Shields, 131 Cal. Rptr. 3d at 89
    (Penal Code § 311.4(c), which proscribes
    the use of a minor to produce child pornography, authorizes a separate
    conviction for each “piece of media created”).
    16                   CHAVEZ-SOLIS V. LYNCH
    contrary, at least one California court has explained that,
    when interpreting § 311.4(d)’s definition of “sexual conduct,”
    the “same principles . . . apply” with respect to a § 311.11(a)
    charge as to a § 311.4(c) charge. People v. Kongs, 37 Cal.
    Rptr. 2d 327, 336 (Ct. App. 1995).5
    The government does not dispute that Wallace and this
    case both turn on the same definition of “sexual conduct”
    found in § 311.4(d). And under our precedents, that is
    enough to satisfy Duenas-Alvarez. Our decision in Medina-
    Lara v. Holder, 
    771 F.3d 1106
    (9th Cir. 2014), is instructive.
    Medina argued that his statute of conviction for possessing a
    firearm under Penal Code § 12022(c) was categorically
    overinclusive because the federal generic offense had an
    exception for antique firearms whereas the state statute had
    no such explicit exception. Although Medina could not point
    to any antique firearm prosecutions under § 12022(c), he was
    able to point to antique firearm prosecutions under other
    California statutes that incorporated the same definition of
    “firearm” as § 12022(c). 
    Id. at 1116.
    The government argued
    that this was insufficient to show a “realistic probability”
    under Duenas-Alvarez. 
    Id. 5 The
    government notes that California courts have adopted the same
    factors that federal courts use to determine whether an image depicts a
    lascivious exhibition of the genitals or pubic area. But this similarity of
    analysis makes sense because the California and federal statutes contain
    nearly identical exhibition provisions. See 
    Kongs, 37 Cal. Rptr. 2d at 334
    (adopting the federal Dost test as the test for “determining whether there
    has been a prohibited exhibition of a minor’s genitals, pubic, or rectal
    area” because the California and federal statutes’ exhibition provisions
    “mean[] the same thing”). The government has not identified any
    California case narrowing § 311.4(d)’s “lewd or lascivious sexual act”
    provision to acts that lewdly exhibit a minor’s genitals or pubic area.
    Indeed, Wallace is directly to the contrary.
    CHAVEZ-SOLIS V. LYNCH                    17
    We agreed with Medina:
    [O]ur inquiry must focus on California’s
    interpretation of former § 12001(b) [the
    provision defining “firearm”] rather than
    convictions based on § 12022(c). . . . It does
    not matter if the conduct is criminalized by
    former § 12021(c)(1), . . . by
    § 12022(c), . . .or by former § 12025(a) . . . .
    Because the common link . . . is the
    § 12001(b) definition of firearm, our analysis
    should center on that statute.
    
    Id. Because Medina
    had pointed to another case applying the
    state statute in a nongeneric manner—even though it was a
    different statute that merely shared the same definition of
    “firearm”—we determined that “Medina’s challenge easily
    passes the Duenas-Alvarez bar.” 
    Id. The same
    is true here. Wallace shows that § 311.4(d) has
    been applied in a manner broader than the generic federal
    offense. It does not matter if the conduct is criminalized by
    § 311.11(a), by § 311.4(c), or by any other provision.
    Because the common link is § 311.4(d)’s definition of “sexual
    conduct,” we focus our analysis on § 311.4(d).
    Both on its face and as applied, § 311.4(d) encompasses
    a broader range of sexual conduct than does the definition of
    “sexually explicit conduct” in the federal statute.
    Accordingly, because § 311.4(d) is incorporated into
    § 311.11(a), there is a realistic probability, not just a
    theoretical possibility, that § 311.11(a) will be applied to
    conduct not described in the federal child pornography
    statute. Section 311.11(a) is therefore categorically broader
    18                   CHAVEZ-SOLIS V. LYNCH
    than any “offense described in [18 U.S.C. §§] 2251, 2251A,
    or 2252.” 8 U.S.C. § 1101(a)(43)(I).
    III
    When a petitioner’s state statute of conviction is not a
    categorical aggravated felony, we can sometimes apply a
    “modified categorical approach.” This test allows us to look
    beyond the statutory text to a limited set of documents to
    determine whether the petitioner was necessarily convicted of
    all the elements of the federal generic offense. See Sanchez-
    Avalos v. Holder, 
    693 F.3d 1011
    , 1014–15 (9th Cir. 2012),
    abrogated in part by Descamps v. United States, 
    133 S. Ct. 2276
    (2013). This approach is available, however, only when
    the state statute of conviction is “divisible,” meaning it “lists
    multiple, alternative elements, and so effectively creates
    several different . . . crimes.” Rendon v. Holder, 
    764 F.3d 1077
    , 1083 (9th Cir. 2014) (alterations in original) (quoting
    
    Descamps, 133 S. Ct. at 2285
    (internal quotation marks
    omitted)). The government contends that § 311.4(d)’s
    definition of “sexual conduct” is divisible, such that we
    should remand to the BIA for it to apply the modified
    categorical approach in the first instance.6 We disagree and
    hold that § 311.11(a)’s reference to “sexual conduct” does not
    create different crimes, each one depending on the particular
    6
    Invoking the Supreme Court’s decision in INS v. Ventura, 
    537 U.S. 12
    (2002) (per curiam), the government also argues that we should remand
    the case for the Board of Immigration Appeals to determine in the first
    instance whether the modified categorical approach should be applied.
    But deciding whether a state statute is divisible requires neither factual
    development nor agency expertise. Ventura is thus inapposite, and we
    decline to remand this issue to the Board of Immigration Appeals. See
    Fernandez-Ruiz v. Gonzales, 
    466 F.3d 1121
    , 1132–35 (9th Cir. 2006) (en
    banc).
    CHAVEZ-SOLIS V. LYNCH                       19
    sexual conduct depicted in an alleged image of child
    pornography. Rather, this definition simply lists numerous
    ways in which an image may be considered to depict “sexual
    conduct” and thus qualify for the single crime of possession
    of child pornography.
    Although § 311.4(d)’s definition of “sexual conduct” is
    worded in the disjunctive, the jury is not required to find that
    the pornographic materials portray any particular type of
    sexual conduct—only that the materials portray sexual
    conduct. See, e.g., 
    Wallace, 14 Cal. Rptr. 2d at 75
    –76
    (quoting trial court’s jury instructions, which stated that “[f]or
    the purpose of this trial, the sexual conduct means any of the
    [types of conduct listed in § 311.4(d)]” (some emphases
    omitted)); People v. Ciccarelli, No. H032864, 
    2009 WL 3635891
    , at *7 (Cal. Ct. App. Nov. 4, 2009) (holding that no
    unanimity instruction under § 311.11(a) was necessary
    because “the jury may divide or be uncertain as to the exact
    way defendant was guilty of the single crime of possessing
    child pornography”). California jury instructions reveal what
    common sense suggests—California juries are not required to
    unanimously agree on what sexual conduct appears in a
    particular image in order to convict a defendant of possession
    of child pornography. See Jury Instruction #33, People v.
    Dillard, No. 02SF0413, 
    2003 WL 24293940
    (Cal. Super. Ct.
    June 25, 2003) (instructing the jury by giving the entire
    definition of “sexual conduct” from § 311.4(d) in a
    possession case under § 311.11(a)); Special Jury Instruction
    311.11(a) #4, People v. Melvyn, No. 01HF0262, 
    2002 WL 33008958
    (Cal. Super. Ct. May 7, 2002) (same).
    The government’s arguments to the contrary are
    unpersuasive. We agree that pattern jury instructions are a
    useful tool in assessing the divisibility of state statutes. See
    20                CHAVEZ-SOLIS V. LYNCH
    
    Rendon, 764 F.3d at 1087
    n.11. But the government reads too
    much into the fact that California’s model jury instructions
    have parentheses or brackets around the laundry list of acts
    that qualify as sexual conduct. See CALJIC No. 10.83
    (model jury instruction for Penal Code § 311.11(a));
    CALCRIM No. 1141 (using § 311.4(d) definition of “sexual
    conduct” in distribution of obscene materials instruction);
    CALCRIM Guide, at xxvi (2015) (“When the user must
    choose one of two or more options in order to complete the
    instruction, the choice of necessary alternatives is presented
    in parentheses . . . . The instructions use brackets to provide
    optional choices that may be necessary or appropriate,
    depending on the individual circumstances of the case . . . .
    Finally, both parentheses and brackets may appear in the
    same sentence to indicate options that arise depending on
    which necessary alternatives are selected . . . .”). All the
    model jury instructions reveal is that at least one type of
    sexual conduct must be filled in so that the jury instruction
    will be complete. Similarly, all we really learn from the
    government’s citation to People v. Hachler, No. A113880,
    
    2007 WL 4171622
    , at *7 (Cal. Ct. App. Nov. 27, 2007), is the
    unremarkable proposition that a jury must unanimously
    conclude that any given image depicts a minor engaged in
    real or simulated sexual conduct. But this does not tell us that
    California juries must unanimously agree on which sexual
    conduct each image contains.
    Section 311.4(d) is indivisible, and the modified
    categorical approach is thus foreclosed. See 
    Rendon, 764 F.3d at 1086
    (holding that a statute is divisible “[o]nly
    when state law requires that in order to convict the defendant
    the jury must unanimously agree that he committed a
    particular substantive offense contained within the
    disjunctively worded statute”).
    CHAVEZ-SOLIS V. LYNCH                  21
    IV
    We hold that Chavez-Solis’s conviction under California
    Penal Code § 311.11(a) does not qualify as an aggravated
    felony under 8 U.S.C. § 1101(a)(43)(I) and that he is
    therefore not removable on that basis. We GRANT the
    petition for review and REMAND for further proceedings
    consistent with this opinion.